PE 



HOI 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ADAPTED TC THB 



DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LEARNERS. 



AN APPENDIX, 



CONTAINING 



RULES AND OBSERVATIONS 



IOE ASSISTING THB MOBE ADVANCED STUDENTS TO WRITE WITH 
PEBSPICUITY AND ACCUBACY. 



,<^ OF, 

LINDLEY MUREAY> 



They who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences 
with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, to 
think with accuraoy and order.—BLAXR. 



PHILADELPHIA : 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 

1860. 



*$$* 




INTRODUCTION. 

— of.— 



w, 



HEN the number and variety of English Grammars already 
published, and the ability with which some of them are written, 
are considered, little can be expected from a new compilation, be- 
sides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and some 
degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the under- 
standing, and the gradual progress of learners. In these respects 
something, perhaps, may yet be done, for the ease and advantage 
of young persons. 

In books designed for the instruction of youth, there is a me- 
dium to be observed, between treating the subject in so exten- 
sive and minute a manner, as to embarrass and confuse their 
minds, by offering too much at once for their comprehension ; and, 
on the other hand, conducting it by such short and general precepts 
and observations, as convey to them no clear and precise informa- 
tion. A distribution of the parts, which is either defective or 
irregular, has also a tendency to perplex the young understanding, 
and to retard its knowledge of the principles of literature. A dis- 
tinct general view, or outline, of all the essential parts of the study 
in which they are engaged ; a gradual and judicious supply of tl is 
outline ; and a due arrangement of the divisions, according to 
their natural order and connexion, appear to be among the best 
means of enlightening the minds of youth, and of facilitating their 
acquisition of knowledge. The author of this work, at the same 
time that he has endeavoured to avoid a plan, which may be 'oo 
concise or too extensive, defective in its parts or irregular in their 
disposition, has studied to render his subject sufficiently easy, in- 
telligible, and comprehensive. He does not presume to have com- 
pletely attained these objects. How far he has succeeded in the 
attempt, and wherein he has failed, must be referred to the de- 
termination of the judicious and candid reader. 

The method which he has adopted, of exhibiting the perform- 
ance in characters of different sizes, will, he trusts be conducive 
to that gradual and regular procedure, which is so favourable to 
the business of instruction. The more important rules, definitions, 
and observations, and which are therefore the most proper to be 
committed to memory, are printed with a larger type ; whilst rules 
and remarks that are of less consequence, that extend or diversify 
the general idea, or that serve as explanations, are contained in the 
smaller letter : these, or the chief of them, will be perused by the 
student to the greatest advantage, if postponed till the general sys- 
tem be completed. The use of notes and observations, in the com- 
mon and detached manner, at the bottom of the page, would not, it 
is imagined, be so likely to attract the perusal of youth, or admit of 
so ample and regular an illustration, as a continued and uniform 
order of the several subjects. In adopting this mode, care has been 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

taken to adjust it so that the whole may be perused in a connected 
progress, or the part contained in the larger character read in or- 
der by itself. Many of the notes and observations are intended, 
not only to explain the subjects, and to illustrate them, by compara- 
tive views of the grammar of other languages, and of the various 
sentiments of English grammarians ; but also to invite the ingeni- 
ous student to inquiry and reflection, and to prompt to a more 
enlarged, critical, and philosophical research. 

With respect to the definitions and rules, it may not be impro- 
per more particularly to observe, that in selecting and forming 
them, it has been the author's aim to render them as exact and 
comprehensive, and, at the same time, as intelligible to young 
minds, as the nature of the subject, and the difficulties attending it, 
would admit. He presumes that they are also calculated to be 
readily committed to memory, and easily retained. For this pur- 
pose, he has been solicitous to select terms that are smooth and 
voluble ; to proportion the members of the sentences to one 
another ; to avoid protracted periods ; and to give the whole defi- 
nition or rule, as much harmony of expression as he could devise. 

From the sentiment generally admitted, that a proper selection 
of faulty composition is more instructive to the young gramma- 
rian, than any rules and examples of propriety that can be given, 
the Compiler has been induced to pay peculiar attention to this 
part of the subject; and though the instances of false grammar, 
under the rules of Syntax, are numerous, it is hoped they will not 
be found too many, when their variety and usefulness are con- 
sidered. 

In a work which professes itself to be a compilation, and which, 
from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials 
selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to 
apologize for the use which the Compiler has made of his prede 
cessors' labours ; or for omitting to insert their names. From the 
alterations which have been frequently made in the sentiments 
and the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the 
particular purposes for which they are introduced ; and, in many 
instances, from the uncertainty to whom the passages originally 
belonged, the insertion of names could seldom be made with pro- 
priety. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this 
nature would derive no advantage from it, equal to the inconve- 
nience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and re- 
ferences. It is, however, proper to acknowledge, in general 
terms, that the authors to whom the grammatical part of this 
compilation is principally indebted for its materials, are Harris, 
Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote. 

The Rules and Observations respecting Perspicuity, &c. con- 
tained in the Appendix, and which are, chiefly, extracted from 
the writings of Blair and Campbell, will, it is presumed, form a 
proper addition to the Grammar. The subjects are very nearly 
related ; and the study of perspicuity and accuracy in writing, 
appears naturally to follow tnat of Grammar. A competent ac 



INTRODUCTION. O 

quaintance with the principles of both, will prepare and qualify 
the students, for prosecuting those additional improvements in 
language, to which they may be properly directed. 

On the utility and importance of the study of Grammar, and 
the principles of Composition, much might be advanced, for the 
encouragement of persons in early life to apply themselves to 
this branch of learning; but as the limits of this Introduction 
will not allow of many observations on the subject, a few leading 
sentiments are all that can be admitted here with propriety. As 
words are the signs of our ideas, and the medium by which we 
perceive the sentiments of others, and communicate our own; 
and as signs exhibit the things which they are intended to repre- 
sent, more or less accurately, according as their real or established 
conformity to those things is more or less exact ; it is evident, that 
in proportion to our knowledge of the nature and properties of 
words, of their relation to each other, and of their established 
connexion with the ideas to which they are applied, will be the 
certainty and ease, with which we transfuse our sentiments 
into the minds of one another ; and that, without a competent 
knowledge of this kind, we shall frequently be in hazard of mis- 
understanding others, and of being misunderstood ourselves. It 
may indeed be justly asserted, that many of the differences in 
opinion amongst men, with the disputes, contentions, and aliena- 
tions of heart, which have too often proceeded from such differ- 
ences, have been occasioned by a want of proper skill in the 
connexion and meaning, of words, and by a tenacious misappli- 
cation of language. 

OxVE of the best supports, which the recommendation of this 
study can receive, in small compass, may be derived from the 
following sentiments of an eminent and candid writer* on lan- 
guage and composition. " All that regards the study of compo- 
sition, merits the higher attention upon this account, that it is 
"intimately connected with the improvement of our intellectual 
"powers. For I must be allowed to say, that when we are em- 
ployed, after a proper manner, in the study of composition, we 
" are cultivating the understanding itself. The study of arranging 
"and expressing our thoughts with propriety, teaches to think, 
" as well as to speak, accurately." 

Before the close of this Introduction, it may not be superflu- 
ous to observe, that the author of the following work has no 
interest in it, but that which arises from the hope, that it will 
prove of some advantage to young persons, and relieve tne 
labours of those who are employed in their education. He 
wishes to promote, in some degree, the cause of virtue, as well as 
of learning; and, with this view, he has been studious, through 
the whole of the work, not only to avoid every example and illus- 
tration, which might have an improper effect on the minds of 
youth ; but also to introduce, on many occasions, such as have a 

* Blair. 
A3 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

moral and religious tendency. His attention to objects of so 
much importance will, he trusts, meet the approbation of every 
well-disposed reader. If they were faithfully regarded in all 
books of education, they would doubtless contribute very mate- 
rially to the order and happiness of society, by guarding the in- 
nocence and cherishing the virtue of the rising generation. 
Holdgate, near York, 1795. 



ADVERTISEMENT 

TO THE NINTH EDITION. 

The eighth edition of this grammar received considerable 
alterations and additions: but works of this nature admit of re- 
peated improvements ; and are, perhaps, never complete. The 
author, solicitous to render his book more worthy of the en- 
couraging approbation bestowed on it by the public, has agam 
revised the work with care and attention. The new edition, he 
hopes, will be found much improved. The additions, which are 
very considerable, are, chiefly, such as are calculated to expand 
the learner's views of the subject ; to obviate objections ; and to 
render the study*of grammar both easy and interesting. This 
edition contains also anew and enlarged system of parsing ; co- 
pious lists of nouns arranged according to their gender and 
number ; and many notes and observations, which serve to ex- 
tend, or to explain, particular rules and positions."* 

The writer is sensible that, after all his endeavours to elucidate 
the principles of the work, there are few of the divisions, arrange- 
ments, definitions, or rules, against which critical ingenuity 
cannot devise plausible objections. The subject is attended with 
so much intricacy, and admits of views so various, that it was not 
possible to render every part of it unexceptionable ; or to ac- 
commodate the work, in all respects, to the opinions and pre- 
possessions of every grammarian and teacher. If the author 
has adopted that system which, on the whole, is best suited to 
the nature of the subject, and conformable to the sentiments of 
the most judicious grammarians ; if his reasonings and illustra- 
tions, respecting particular points, are founded on just principles, 
and the peculiarities of the English language ; he has, perhaps, 
done all that could reasonably be expected in a work of this 
nature ; and he may warrantably indulge a hope, that the book 
will be still more extensively approved and circulated. 

* The author conceives that the occasional strictures, dispersed through the 
book, and intended to illustrate and support a number of important grammatical 
points, will not, to young persons of ingenuity, appear to be dry an J useless 
discussions. He is persuaded that, by such persons, they will be read with at- 
tention. And he presumes that these strictures will gratify their curiosity, 
stimulate application, and give solidity and permanence to their grammatical 
knowledge. In the Octavo editicn of the grammar, the reader will find many 
additional discussions of this nature. 

Holdgate, near York, 1804. 



CONTENTS, 



PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

CHAP. 1. Of letters. Pago, 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of the letters, and of a per- 
fect alphabet 11 

2. General observations on the sounds of the 

letters 17 

3. The nature of articulation explained. . 21 
CHAP. 2. Of syllables, and the rules for arranging them. 2<> 
CHAP. 3. Of words in general, and the rules for spelling 

them £7 

PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAP. 1. A general view of the parts of speech. . • . UO 

CHAP. 2. Of the articles !*2 

CHAP. 3. Of substantives. 

Sect. 1. Of substantives in general tti 

2. Of gender ift, 

3. Of number »| 

4. Of case m 

CHAP. 4. Of adjectives. 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of adjectives, and the degrees 

of comparison. II 

2. Remarks on the subject of comparison. . 4'i 

CHAP. 5. Of pronouns. 

Sect. 1. Of the personal pronouns 13 

2. Of the relative pronouns. ...... 15 

3. Of the adjective pronouns Ilj 

CHAP. 6. Of verbs. 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of verbs in general. ... 50 

2. Of number and person 52 

3. Of moods and participles. . . . . . . ih. 

4. Remarks on the potential mood. • ... 55 

5. Of the tenses 57 

6. The conjugation of the auxiliary verbs to 

have and to be. . . . (M 

7. The auxiliary verbs conjugated in their 

simple form ; with observations on their 
peculiar nature and force. • • • • €7 



8 CONTENTS. 

Page 

Sect. 8. The conjugation of regular verbs. . . 70 

9. Observations on passive verbs. . . 7(3 

10. Of irregular verbs 78 

11. Of defective verbs ; and of the d liferent 

ways in which verbs are conjugated. . 83 

CHAP. 7. Of adverbs 84 

CHAP. 8. Of prepositions 87 

CHAP. 9. Of conjunctions 89 

CHAP. 10. Of Interjections 91 

CHAP. 11. Of derivation. . . . 92 

Sect. 1. Of the various ways in which words are 

derived from one another ib 

2. A sketch of the steps, by which the English 
language has risen to its present state 

of refinement 94 

PART III.— SYNTAX. 

Of the syntax of the article 115 

Of the syntax of the noun. 

Of several nouns joined by copulatives 100 

Of nouns connected by disjunctives 10? 

Of nouns of multitude ib. 

Of one noun governing another in the possessive case. 117 

Of the syntax of the pronoun. 

Of pronouns agreeing with their antecedents. . . 103 
Of the relative being nominative to the verb. . . . 107 
Of the relative preceded by nominatives of different 
persons. . . . 108 

Of the syntax of the adjective. . . ib. 

Of the syntax of the verb. 

Of the verb's agreement with the nominative case. . 97 

Of verbs active requiring the objective*case. . . . 121 

Of one verb governing another in the infinitive mood. 123 

Of verbs related in point of time 124 

Of the syntax of the participle •••••. 127 

Of the rules respecting adverbs. 

Of the position of adverbs ...••... 129 
Of two negatives. . . , 131 

Of the syntax of prepositions. • . ♦ . • . . . 181 

Of the syntax of conjunctions. 

Of conjunctions connecting the same moods, tenses, 

and cases. 134 

Of conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood,&c. 135 

Of the syntax of interjections ..>.... 106 



CONTENTS. 9 

Peure. 

Of comparisons by the conjunction than or as, • • 342 

Directions respecting the ellipses 143 

General rule of syntax . . . J46 

Directions for parsing • 148 

PART IV.— PROSODY. 

CHAP. 1. Of pronunciation. . . . . ! 154 

Sect. I. Of accent ib. 

2. Of quantity ... 158 

3. Of emphasis • • • • • 159 

4. Of pauses. . . • 163 

5. Of tones. 165 

CHAP. 2. Of versification 166 

OF PUNCTUATION. 

CHAP. 1. Of the comma < 177 

CHAP. 2. Of the semicolon 131 

CHAP. 3. Of the colon 182 

CHAP. 4. Of the period ib. 

CHAP. 5. Of the dash, notes of interrogation, exclama- 
tion, capitals, &c 183 

APPENDIX. 

RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR PROMOTING PERSPICUITY AND 
ACCURACY IN WRITING. 

PART I. 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of exjjression, with respect to single 

words and phrases. 

CHAP. 1. Of purity 188 

CHAP. 2. Of propriety 169 

CHAP. 3. Of precision. 193 

PART II. 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect to (he con* 

struciion of sentences. 

CHAP. 1. Of the clearness of a sentence. • • • • 197 
CHAP. 2. Of the unity of a sentence .... .200 

CHAP. 3. Of the strength of a sentence 203 

CHAP. 4. Of figures of speech. . . 215 

1# 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR is theart of speaking and writing 
the English language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts, viz. ORTHOGRAPHY, 
ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY. 

This division may be rendered more intelligible to the student, 
by observing, in other words, that Grammar treats, first, of the 
form and sound of the letters, tne combination of letters into syl- 
lables, and syllables into words ; secondly, of the different sorts 
of words, their various modifications, and their derivation ; third* 
ly, of the union and right order of words in the formation of a 
sentence ; and lastly, of the just pronunciation, and poetical con- 
struction of sentences. 



PART L 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF THE LETTERS. 



SECTION I. Of the nature of the letters, and of a perfect 
alphabet. 

ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of 
etters, and the just method of spelling words. 

A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 

The letters of the English ianguage, called the English 
Alphabet, are twenty-six in number. 

These letters are the representatives of certain articu- 
late sounds, the elements of the language. An articulate 
sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed by the or- 
gans of speech. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following is a list of the Anglo-Saxon, Roman, Italic, 
and Old English Characters. 



Saxon. 


Roman. 


Italic. 


Old English. 


Name. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 




3. 


a 


A 


a 


A 


a 


3 


« 


at. 


B 


b 


B 


b 


B 


b 


as 


b 


bee. 


E 


c 


C 


c 


C 


c 





t 


see. 


D 


b 


D 


d 


D 


d 


29 


* 


dee. 


e 


e 


E 


e 


E 


e 


3S 


e 


ee 


F 


F 


F 


f 


F 


f 


9 


t 


4 


Ir 


t 


G 


g 


G 


g 


© 


S 


jee. 


b 


h 


H 


h 


H 


h 


lb 


ft 


aitch. 


I 


i 


I 


i 


I 


i 


* 


f 


% or eye 






J 


J 


J 


J 


3 


f 


jay. 


K 


k 


K 


k 


K 


k 


W, 


ft 


kay. 


L 


l 


L 


1 


L 


I 


% 


I 


el. 


CO 


m 


M 


m 


M 


m 


m 


m 


em. 


N 


n 


N 


n 


JV 


n 


M 


u 


en. 








O 











m 





0. 


P 


P 


P 


P 


p 


P 


£ 


9 


pee. 






^ 


q 


Q 


1 


<& 


q 


cue. 


R 


P 


R 


r 


R 


r 


It 


V 


ar. 


S 


r 


S 


s 


S 


s 


& 


s 


ess. 


T 


c 


T 


t 


T 


t 


m 


t 


tee 


D 


%th 
















U 


u 


U 


u 


U 


w 


m 


tt 


u or you 




V 


V 


V 


V 


V 


w 


If 


vee. 


m 


p 


w 


w 


W 


■w 


m 


to 


double u 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


Y 


eks. 


Y 


f 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


® 


8 


wy. 


Z 


% 


Z 


z 


Z 


2 


% 


? 


zed. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, indeed, of 
every other language, would contain a number of letters, pre- 
cisely equal to the number of simple articulate sounds belonging 
to the language. Every simple sound would have its distinct 
character ; and that character be the representative of no other 
sound. But this is far from being the state of the English al- 
phabet. It has more original sounds than distinct significant 
letters; and, consequently, some of these letters are made to re- 
present, not one sound alone, but several sounds. This will ap- 
pear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the united letters 
th, sh, ng, are elementary, and have no single appropriate cha- 
racters, in our alphabet : and that the letters a and u represent 
the different sounds heard in hat, hate, hall ; and in but, bull, mule. 

To explain this subject more fully to the learners, we shall set 
down the characters made use of to represent all the elementary 
articulate sounds of our language, as nearly in the manner and 
order of the present English alphabet, as the design of the sub- 
ject will admit ; and shall annex to each character the syllable 
or word, which contains its proper and distinct sound. And 
here it will be proper to begin with the vowels. 

Letters denoting the - Words containing the 

simple sounds. simple sounds. 

a as heard in fate 

a as in fall 

a as in fat 

a as in far 

e as in me 

e as in met 

i as in pine 

i as in * pin 

o as in no 

o as in not 

o as in move 

u as in mule 

u as in tub 

u as in bull 

By this list it appears, that there are in the English language 
fourteen simple vowel sounds : but as {and u, when pronounced 
long, may be considered as diphthongs, or diphthongal vowels, our 
language, strictly speaking, contains but twelve simple vowel 
sounds ; to represent which, we have only five distinct charac- 
ters or letters. If a in far, is the same specific sound as a in/at ; 
and u in bull, the same as o in move, which is the opinion of some 
grammarians ; then there are but ten original vowel sounds in 
the English language. 

The following list denotes the sounds of the consonants, being 
in number twentv-two. 

B 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Letters denoting the 




Words containing the 


simple sounds. 




simple sounds: 


b 


as heard in 


bay, tub 


d 


as in 


day, sad 


f 


as in 


off, for 


V 


as in 


van, love 


g 


as in 


egg, go 


h* 


as in 


nop, ho 


k 


as in 


kill, oak 


1 


as in 


lap, all 


m 


as in 


my, mum 


n 


as in 


no, on 


, P 


as in 


pin, map 


r 


as in 


rap, cry 


s 


as in 


so, lass 


z 


as in 


zed, buzz 


t 


as in 


top mat 


w 


as in 


wo, will 


y 


as in 


ye, yes 


ng 


as in 


ing, sing 


sh 


as in 


shy, ash 


th 


as in 


thin, thick 


th 


as in 


then, them 


zh 


as in 


pleasure 



Several letters marked in the English alphabet, as consonants, 
are either superfluous, or represent, not simple, but complex 
sounds. C, for instance, is superfluous in both its sounds ; the one 
being expressed by /c, and the other by s. G, in the soft pronun- 
ciation, is not a simple, but a complex sound ; as age is pro- 
nounced aidge. J is unnecessary, because its sound, and that of 
the soft g*, are in our language the same. Q, with its attendant 
w, is either complex, and resolvable into kw, as in quality ; or un- 
necessary, because its sound is the same with k, as in opaque. X 
is compounded of gs, as in example ; or of ks, as in expect. 

From the preceding representation, it appears to be a point of 
considerable importance, that every learner of the English lan- 
guage should be taught to pronounce perfectly, and with facility, 
every original simple sound that belongs to it. By a timely and 
judicious care in this respect, the voice will be prepared to utter, 
with ease and accuracy, every combination of sounds ; and taught 
to avoid that confused and imperfect manner of pronouncing 
words, which accompanies, through life, many persons who have 
not, in this respect, been properly instructed at an early period. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 
uttered by itself: as a, e, o ; which are formed without 
the help of any other sound. 

* Some grammarians suppose h to mark only an aspiration, or breathing; 
but it appears to be a distinct sound, and formed in a particular manner, by the 
organs of speech. Encyclopedia Britannica. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

A Consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be 
perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel : as, 6, d,f t 
I ; which require vowels to express them fully. 

The vowels are, a, e, i, o, ?/, and sometimes w and y. 

TV and y are consonants when they begin a word or syl- 
lable ; but in every other situation they are vowels. 

It is generally acknowledged by the best grammarians, that w 
and y are consonants when they begin a syllable or word, and 
vowels when they end one. That they are consonants, when used 
as initials, seems to be evident from their not admitting the arti- 
cle an before them, as it would be improper to say, an walnut, an 
yard, &c. ; and from their following a vowel without any hiatus 
or difficulty of utterance ; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they 
are vowels in other situations, appears from their regularly tak- 
ing the sound of other vowels ; as, w has the exact sound of u in 
saw few, now, &c. ; and y that of i, in hymn, fly, crystal, &c. 
See the letters W and Y, page 23* 

We present the following as more exact and philosophical de- 
finitions of a vowel and consonant. 

A vow r el is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, and 
formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a certain con- 
formation of the mouth, without any alteration in the position, 
or any motion of the organs of speech, from the moment the vocal 
sound commences, till it ends. 

A consonant is a simple, articulate sound, imperfect by itself, 
but which joined with a vowel, forms a complete sound, by a 
particular motion or contact of the organs of speech. 

Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple and the 
compound. But there does not appear to be any foundation for the 
distinction. Simplicity is essential to the nature of a vowel, which 
excludes every degree of mixed or compound sounds. It requires, 
according to the definition, but one conformation of the organs of 
speech, to form it, and no motion in the organs, whilst it is forming. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of 
a vowel. They are 6, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. 
They arey", /, ra, n t r, v t s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, /, ra, n, r, are also 
distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily 
uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were into 
their sounds. 

* The letters w and y, are of an ambiguous nature ; being consonants at the 
beginning of words, and vowels at the end. Encyclopaedia Britannica 

WALKER'S Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, page 24, third edition. 
PERRY'S English Dictionary, Preface, page 7. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We have shown above, that it is essential to the nature of a 
consonant, that it cannot be fully uttered without the aid of a 
vowel. We may further observe, that even the names of the con- 
sonants, as they are pronounced in reciting the alphabet, require 
the help of vowels to express them. In pronouncing the names 
of the mutes, the assistant vowels follow the consonants: as, be, 
pe 9 te, de, ka. In pronouncing the names of the semi- vowels, the 
vowels generally precede the consonants: as, ef, el, em, en, ar, es, 
x. The exceptions are, ce, ge, ve, zed. 

This distinction between the nature and the name of a conso- 
nant, is of great importance, and should be well explained to the 
pupil. They are frequently confounded by writers on grammar 
Observations and reasonings on the name, are often applied to 
explain the nature, of a consonant : and, by this means, the stu- 
dent is led into error and perplexity, respecting these elements 
of language. It should be impressed on his mind, that the name 
of every consonant is a complex sound ; but that the consonant it- 
self, is always a simple sound. 

Some writers have described the mutes and semi- vowels, with 
their subdivisions, nearly in the following manner. 

The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be pro- 
tracted. The semi-voivels, such whose sounds can be continued 
at pleasure, partaking of the nature of vowels, from which they 
derive their name. 

The mutes may be subdivided into pure and impure. The pure 
are those whose sounds cannot be at all prolonged : they are 
k, p, i. The impure, are those whose sounds may be continued, 
though for a very short space : they are h, d, g. 

The semi- vowels may be subdivided into vocal and aspirated. 
The vocal are those which are formed by the voice ; the aspirated, 
those formed by the breath. There are eleven vocal, and five 
aspirated. The vocal are I, m, n, r, v, w,y, z, th flat, zh, ng : the 
aspirated, f, h, s, th sharp, sh. 

The vocal semi-vowels may be subdivided into pure and im- 
pure. The pure are those which are formed entirely by the 
voice : the impure, such as have a mixture of breath with the 
voice. There are seven pure — Z, m, n, r, w, y, ng ; four impure 
— -2?, z, th flat, zh. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by 
a simple impulse of the voice ; as ea in beat, on in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced 
in .ike manner ; as, eau in beau, iew in view. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are 
sounded ; as, oi in voice, on in ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels 
sounded ; as. ea in eagle, oa in boat. 

Each of the diphthongal letters was, doubtless, originally heard 
mi pronouncing the words which contain them. Though this is not 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

the case at present, with respect to many of them, these combina- 
tions still retain the name ofdiphthongs ; but, to distinguish them, 
they are marked by the term improper. As the diphthong 
derives its name and nature from its sound, and not from its 
letters, and properly denotes a double vowel sound, no union of 
two vowels, where one is silent, can, in strictness, be entitled to 
that appellation ; and the single letters i and u, when pronounced 
long, must, in this view, be considered as diphthongs. The triph- 
thongs, having at most but two sounds, are merely ocular, and 
are, therefore, by some grammarians, classed with the diphthongs. 

SECTION II. General observations on the sounds of the letters. 

A 

A has four sounds ; the long or slender, the broad, the short 
or open, and the middle. 

The long ; as in name, basin, creation. 

The broad ; as in call, wall, all. 

The short ; as in barrel, fancy, glass. 

The middle ; as in far, farm, father. 

The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in proper 
names ; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac ; but not in Baal, Gaal. 

Ae has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in Latin 
words. Some authors retain this form ; as, asnigma, asquator, &c; 
but othersjiave laid it aside- and write enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c. 

The dirinthong ai has exactly the long slender sound of a, as 
in pail, tail, &c. ; pronounced pale, tale, &c. : except plaid, again, 
raillery, fountain, Britain, and a few others. 

Au is generally sounded like the broad a : as in taught, caught, 
&c. Sometimes like the short or open a ; as in aunt, flaunt, 
gauntlet, &c. It has the sound of long o in hautboy ; and that 
of o short in laurel, laudanum, &c. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a • as in bawl, scrawl, crawl. 

Ay, like its near relation ai, is pronounced like the long slen- 
der sound of a ; as in pay, day, delav. 

B 

B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and 
end of words ; as in baker, number, rhubarb, &c. 

In some words it is silent ; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, &c. In 
others, besides fteing silent, it lengthens the syllable; as in 
climb, comb, tomb. 

C 

C has two different sounds. 

A hard sound like k, before a, o, w,r, Z, t ; as in cart, cottage, 
curious, craft, tract, cloth, &c. ; and when it ends a syllable ; as 
in victim, flaccid. 

A soft sound like s before e, i, and y, generally ; as in centre, 
face, civil, cymbal, mercy, &c. It has sometimes the sound of 
sh ; as in ocean, social. 

C is mute in czar, czarine, victuals, &c. 
*• C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English orthography, never 

B 2 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ends a word; and therefore we find in our best dictionaries, 
stick, block, publick, politick, &c. But many writers of latter 
years omit the k in words of two or more syllables ; and this prac- 
tice is gaining ground, though it is productive of irregularities ; 
such as writing mimic and mimickry ; traffic and trafficking. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tch; as in church, chin, chaff, 
charter : but in words derived from the Greek, has the sound of 
k ; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, distich ; and in foreign 
names ; as Achish, Baruch, Enoch, &c. 

Ch, in some words derived from the French, takes the sound of 
sh; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k ; as in archangel, 
archives, Archipelago ; except in arched, archery, archer, and 
arch-enemy: but before a consonant it always sounds like tch • 
as in archbishop, archduke, archpresbyter, &c. Ch is silent in 
schedule, schism, and yacht. 

D 

D keeps one uniform sound, at the beginning, middle, and end 
of words ; as in death, bandage, kindred ; unless it may be said 
to take the sound oft, in stuffed, tripped, &c. stuft, tript, &c. 

E 

E has three different sounds. 

A long sound ; as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley. 

A short sound ; as in men, bed, clemency. 

An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound ; as, open, lucre, 
participle. 

It has sometimes the sound of middle a ; as in clerk, serjeant 
and sometimes that of short i ; as in England, yes, pretty. 

E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosylla- 
bles that have no other vowel ; as, me, he, she : or in substan- 
tives derived from the Greek ; as, catastrophe, epitome, Penelope. 
It is used to soften and modify the foregoing consonants ; as, force, 
rage, since, oblige : or to lengthen the preceding vowel ; as, can, 
cane ; pin, pine ; rob, robe. 

The diphthong ea is generally sounded like e long ; as in appear, 
beaveiv creature, &c. It has also the sound rof short e ; as in 
breath, meadow, treasure. And it is sometimes pronounced like 
the long and slender a ; as in bear, break, greaJt; 

Eau has the sound of long o ; as in beau, filnlfceau, portman- 
teau. In beauty and its compounds, it has the sound of long u. 

Ei, in general, sounds the same as long and slender a; as in 
deign, vein, neighbour, &c. It has fhe sound of long e in seize, 
deceit, receive, either, neither, &c. It is sometimes pronounced 
like short i; as in foreign, forfeit, sovereign, &c. 

Eo is pronounced like e long ; as in people ; and sometimes 
like e short ; as in leopard, jeopardy. Tt has also the sound of 
short u ; as in dungeon, stuigeon, puncheon, &c. 

Eu is always sounded like*1ong u or ew ; as in feud, deuce. 

Ew is almost always pronounced like long u ; as in few, new, dew 
Ey, when the accent is on it, is always pronounced like a long 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

as in bey, grey, convey ; except in key, ley, where it is sounded 
like long e. 

When this diphthong is unaccented, it takes the sound of e long 
as, alley, valley, barley. 

F 

F keeps one pure unvaried sound at the beginning, middle, and 
end of words ; as, fancy, muffin, mischief, &c. : except in of, in 
which it has the flat sound of ov ; but not in composition ; as, 
whereof, thereof, &c. We should not pronounce, a wive's join- 
ture, a calve's head : but a wife's jointure, a calf's head. 

■//- 8 

G has two sounds : one hard ; as in gay, go, gun : the other 
soft ; as in gem, giant. 

At the end of a word it is always hard ; as in bag, snug, frog. 
It is hard before a, o, u, Z, and r ; as, game, gone, gull, glory, 
grandeur. 

G before e, i, and 3/, is soft ; as in genius, gesture, ginge^, 
Egypt ; except in get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and some others. 

G is mute before n; as in gnash, sign, foreign, &c. 

Gn, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives the pre- 
ceding vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn, oppugn, 
impregn, impugned ; pronounced impune, imprene, &c. 

Gh, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the hard 
g; as, ghost, ghastly : in the middle, and sometimes at the end 
it is quite silent ; as in right^high, plough, mighty. 

At the end it has often the sound of/; as in laugh, cough 
tough. Sometimes only the g is sounded ; as in burgh, burgher 

H 

The sound signified by this letter, is, as before observed, an 
articulate sound, and not merely an aspiration. It is heard in 
th^ words, hat, horse, Hull. It is seldom mute at the beginning of 
a word. It is always silent after r ; as, rhetoric,*rheum, rhubarb. 

H final, preceded by a vow^l, is always silent ; as, ah ! hah ! 
oh ! foh ! Sarah, Messiah. 

From the faintness of the sound of this letter, in many words, 
fc^ii its total silence in others, added to the negligence of tutors, 
and the inattention of pupils, it has happened, that many persons 
have become almo st incapable of acquiring its just and full pro- 
nunciation. I|0^herefore, incumbent on teachers, to be particu- 
larly careful to inculcate a clear and distinct utterance of this 
tsound. 

I 

/has a long sound ; as in fine : and a short one ; as in fin. 

The long sound is always marked by the e final in monosylla- 
bles ; as thin, thine ; except give, live. Before r it is often 
sounded like a short u ; as flirt, first. In some words it has the 
sound of e long ; as in machine, bombazine, magazine. 

The diphthong ia is frequently sounded like ya ; as in chris- 
tian, filial, poinard ; pronounced christ-yan, &c. It has some- 
times the sound of short i ; as in carriage, marriage, parliament. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It sounds in general like e long ; as in grief, thief, grenadier 
\\ has also the sound of long i ; as in die, pie, lie : and some* 
times that of short i; as in sieve. 

leu has the sound of long u ; as in lieu, adieu, purlieu. 

Jo, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two dis« 
tinct syllables ; as, priory, violet, violent. The terminations Hon 
and sion, are sounded exactly like the word shun ; except when 
the t is preceded by s or x ; as in question, digestion, combustion, 
mixtion, &c. 

The triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two 
syllables; as in bilious, various, abstemious. But these vowels, 
often coalesce into one syllable ; as in precious, factious, noxious. 

J 

J is pronounced exactly like soft g; except in hallelujah, 
where it is pronounced like y. 

K 

J?" has the sound of c hard, and is used before c and i, where, 
according to English analogy, c would be soft ; as, kept, king, 
skirts. It is not sounded before n ; as in knife, knell, knocker. 
It is never doubled, except in Habbakkuk ; but c is used before 
it, to shorten the vowel by a double consonant ; as, cockle, pic- 
kle, sucker. 

L 

L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, quarrel. 
It is sometimes mute ; as in half, talk, psalm. The custom is to 
double the I at the end of monosyllables ; as, mill, will, fall ; ex- 
cept where a diphthong precedes it ; as, hail, toil, soil. 

Le, at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak el ; in 
which the e is almost mute ; as, table, shuttle. 

M 

M has always the same sound ; as, murmur, monumental ; 
except in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. 

N " 

•7V has two sounds : the one pure ; as in man, net, noble ; the 
other a ringing sound like ng ; as in thank, banquet, &c. 

N is mute when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by m ; as, 
hymn, solemn, autumn. 

The participial ing must always have its ringing sound ; as, 
writing, reading, speaking. Some writers haf^j^upposed that 
when ing is preceded by ing, it should be pronounced in; as. 
singing, bringing, should be sounded singin, bringin : but as it is a 
good rule, with respect to pronunciation, to adhere to the written 
words, unless custom has clearly decided otherwise, it does not 
peern proper to adopt this innovation. 

O 

O has a long sound ; as in note, bone, obedient, over ; and a 
short one , as in not, got, lot, trot. 

It has sometimes the short sound of u ; as, son, come, attor- 
ney. And in some words it is sounded like oo ; as in prove, 
move ; and often like au ; as in nor, for, lord. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 21 

The diphthong oa is regularly pronounced as the long sound of 
o ; as in boat, oat, coal ; except in broad, abroad, groat, where it 
takes the sound of broad a ; as, brawd, &c. 

Oe has the sound of single e. It is sometimes long ; as in foe- 
tus, Antoeci: and sometimes short ; as in (economics, oecumeni- 
cal. In doe, foe, sloe, toe, throe, hoe, and bilboes, it is sounded 
exactly like long o. 

Oi has almost universally the double sound of a broad and e 
long united, as in boy ; as boil, toil, spoil, joint, point, anoint : which 
should never be pronounced as if written bile, spile, tile, &c. 

Oo almost always preserves its regular sound ; as in moon, 
soon, food. It has a shorter sound in wool, good, foot, and a few 
others. In blood and flood it sounds like short u. Door and 
floor should always be pronounced as if written dore and flore. 

The dipthong ou has six different sounds. The first and proper 
sound is equivalent to ow in down ; as in bound, found, surround. 

The second is that of short u ; as in enough, trouble, journey. 

The third is that of oo; as in soup, youth, tournament. 

The fourth is that of long o; as in though, mourn, poultice. 

The fifth is that of short o; as in cough, trough. 

The sixth is that of awe ; as in ought, brought, thought. 

Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou ; as in brown, dowry, 
shower. It has also the sound of long o ; as in snow, grown, 
bestow. 

The diphthong oy is but another form for oi, and is pronounced 
exactly like it. 
w- P 

P has always the same sound, except, perhaps, in cupboard, 
where it sounds like b. It is sometimes mute ; as in psalm, psal- 
ter, Ptolemy: and between m and t; as, tempt, empty, pre- 
sumptuous. 

Ph is generally pronounced like/; as in philosophy, philan- 
thropy, Philip. 

In nephew and Stephen, it has the sound of v. In apophthegem, 
phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, both letters are entirely dropped. 

Q 

Q, is always followed by u ; as, quadrant, queen, quire. 

Qw is sometimes sounded like k ; as, conquer, liquor, risque. 

R 

R has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage : and a smooth 
one ; as in bard, card, regard. 

Re at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak er ; 
as in theatre, sepulchre, massacre. 

S 

$ has two different sounds. 

A soft and flat sound like z ; as, besom, nasal, dismal, 

A sharp hissing sound ; as, saint, sister, Cyprus. 

It is always sharp at the beginning of words. 

At the end of words it takes the soft sound ; as, his, was, trees, 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

eyes; except in the words this, thus, us, yes, rebus, surplus, &c; 
and in words terminating with ous. 

It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before ; as, intrusion ; 
but like s sharp, if it follows a consonant ; as, conversion. It also 
sounds like z before e mute ; as, amuse ; and before y final ; as, 
rosy ; and in the words bosom, desire, wisdom, &c. 

£ is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. 

T 

T generally sounds, as in take, tempter. T before u, when 
the accent precedes, sounds like tch ; as, nature, virtue, are pro- 
nounced, natchure, virtchue. Ti before a vowel has the sound 
of sh ; as in salvation : except in such words as tierce, tiara, &c. 
and unless an s goes before ; as, question ; and excepting also 
derivatives from words ending in ty; as, mighty, mightier. 

Th has two sounds : the one soft and flat ; as, thus, whether, 
heathen : the other hard and sharp ; as, thing, think, breath. 

Th, at the beginning of words, is sharp ; as in thank, thick, 
thunder : except in that, then, thus, thither, and some others. 
Th, at the end of words, is also sharp ; as, death, breath, mouth : 
except in wkh, booth, beneath, &c. 

Th, in the middle of words, is sharp ; as, panther, orthodox, mis- 
anthrope : except worthy, farthing, brethren, and a few others. 

Th, between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely 
English ; as, father, heathen, together, neither, mother. 

Th, between two vowels, in words from the learned languages, 
is generally sharp ; as, apathy, sympathy, Athens, apothecary. 

Th is sometimes pronounced like simple t ; as, Thomas, thyme, 
Thames, asthma. 

U 

£7 has three sounds, viz. 

A long sound ; as in mule, tube, cubic. 

A short sound ; as in dull, gull, custard. 

An obtuse sound, like oo ; as in bull, full, bushel. 

The strangest deviation of this letter from its natural sound, is 
in the words busy, business, bury, and buriai ; which are pro- 
nounced bizzy, bizness, berry, and berrial. 

A is now often used before words beginning with u long, and 
an always before those that begin with u short ; as, a union, a 
university, a useful book ; an uproar, an usher, an umbrella. 

The diphthong ua, has sometimes the sound of wa ; as in as- 
suage, persuade, antiquary. It has also the sound of middle a ; 
as in guard, guardian, guarantee. 

Ue is often sounded like we; as in quench, querist, conquest. 
It has also the sound of long u ; as in cue, hue, ague. In a few 
words, it is pronounced like e short ; as in guest, guess. In some 
words it is entirely sunk ; as in antique, oblique, prorogue, cata- 
logue, dialogue, &c. 

Ui is frequently pronounced ivi ; as in languid, anguish, extin- 
guish. It has sometimes the sound of i long ; as in guide, guile, 
disguise: and sometimes that oft short; as in guilt, guinea. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

Guildhall. In some words it is sounded like long u ; as in juice, 
suit, pursuit : and after r, like oo ; as in bruise, fruit, recruit. 

Uo is pronounced like wo ; as in quote, quorum, quondam. 

Uy has the sound of long e; as in obloquy, soliloquy; pro- 
nounced obloquee, &c. ; except by, and its derivatives. 

V 

Fhas the sound of flat f; and bears the same relation to it, as 
b does to p, d to t, hard g to &, and z to s. It has also one uni- 
form sound ; as, vain, vanity, love. 

W 

W, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo; as water re- 
sembles the sound ofooater; but that it has a stronger and quick- 
er sound than oo, and has a formation essentially different, will 
appear to any person who pronounces, with attention, the words 
ivo, woo, beware ; and who reflects that it will not admit the arti- 
cle an before it ; which oo would admit. In some words it is not 
sounded ; as in answer, sword, wholesome : it is always silent 
before r ; as in wrap, wreck, wrinkle, wrist, wrong, wry, be- 
wray, &c. 

W before h is pronounced as if it were after the h ; as, wh$ \ 
hwy ; when, hwen ; what, hwat. 

W is often joined to o at the end of a syllable, without affect- 
ing the sound of that vowel ; as in crow, blow, grow, know, 
row, flow, &c. 

When w is a vowel, and is distinguished in the pronunciation, 
it has exactly the same sound as u would have in the same situ- 
ation ; as, draw, crew, view, now, sawyer, vowel, outlaw. 

X 

X has three sounds, viz. 

It is sounded like z at the beginning of proper names of Greek 
original ; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with the 
accent upon it ; as exit, exercise, excellence ; or when the ac- 
cent is on the next syllable, if it begins with a consonant ; as, 
excuse, extent, expense. 

It has, generally, a flat sound like gz, when the accent is not 
on it, and the following syllable begins with a vowel ; as, exert, 
exist, example ; pronounced, egzert, egzist, egzample. 

Y 

Y, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee ; as, youth, 
York, resemble the sound of eeouth, eeork : but that this is not 
its exact sound, will be clearly perceived by pronouncing the 
words ye, yes, new-year, in which its just and proper sound is as- 
certained. It not only requires a stronger exertion of the organs of 
speech to pronounce it, than is required to pronounce ee ; but its 
formation is essentially different. It will not admit of an before 
it, as ee will in the following example ; an eel. The opinion that 
y and w, when they begin a word or syllable, take exactly the 
sound of ee and oo, has induced some grammarians to assert, 
that these letters are always vowels or diphthongs. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When y is a vowel, it has exactly the same sound as i would 
have in the same situation ; as, rhyme, system, justify, pyramid, 
party, fancy, hungry. 

Z 

Z has the sound of an s uttered with a closer compression of 
the palate by the tongue : it is the flat s ; as, freeze, frozen, brazen. 

It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of the letters vary 
as they are differently associated, and that the pronunciation of 
these associations depends upon the position of the accent. It 
may also be observed, that, in order to pronounce accurately, 
great attention must be paid to the vowels which are not ac- 
cented. There is scarcely any thing which more distinguishes 
a person of a poor education, from a person of a good one, than 
the pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. When vowels are 
under the accent, the best speakers and the lowest of the people, 
with very few exceptions, pronounce them in the same manner ; 
but the unaccented vowels in the mouths of the former, have a 
distinct, open, and specific sound, while the latter often totally 
sink them, or change them into some other sound. 

SECTION III. The nature of articulation explained. 

A CONCISE account of the origin and formation of the sounds 
emitted by the human voice, may, perhaps, not improperly, be 
here introduced. It may gratify the ingenious student, and 
serve to explain more fully the nature of articulation, and the 
radical distinction between vowels and consonants. 

Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agitated or 
modified in its passage through the windpipe and larynx, as to 
oecome distinctly audible. The windpipe is that tube, which, on 
touching the forepart of our throat externally, we feel hard and 
uneven. It conveys air into the lungs for the purpose of breath- 
ing and speech. The top or upper part of the windpipe is called 
the larynx, consisting of four or five cartilages, that may be ex- 
panded or brought together, by the action of certain muscles which 
operate all at the same time. In the middle of the larynx there 
is a small opening, called the glottis, through which the breath 
and voice are conveyed. This opening is not wider than one 
tenth of an inch ; and, therefore, the breath transmitted through 
it from the lungs, must pass with considerable velocity. The * 
voice thus formed, is strengthened and softened by a reverbera- 
tion from the palate and other hollow places in the inside of the 
mouth and nostrils ; and as these are better or worse shaped for 
this reverberation, the voice is said to be more or less agreeable. 

If we consider the many varieties of sound, which one and the 
same human voice is capable of uttering, together with the sniall- 
ness of the diameter of the glottis ; and reflect, that the same di 
ameter must always produce the same tone, and, consequently, 
that to every change of tone a correspondent change of diameter 
is necessary ; we must be filled with admiration at the mechanism 
of these parts, and the fineness of the fibres that operate in pro- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 25 

ducing effects so minute, so various, and in their proportions so 
exactly uniform. For it admits of proof, that the diameter of the 
human glottis is capable of more than sixty distinct degrees of 
contraction or enlargement, by each of which a different note is 
produced ; and yet the greatest diameter of that aperture, as be- 
fore observed, does not exceed one tenth of an inch. 

Speech is made up of articulate voices ; and what we callarfa*- 
culaiion, is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, or larynx, jut 
by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils 
Articulation begins not, till the breath, or voice, has passed 
through the larynx. 

The simplest articulate voices are those which proceed from 
an open mouth, and are by grammarians called vowel sounds. In 
transmitting these, the aperture of the mouth may be pretty large, 
or somewhat smaller or very small ; which is one cause of the 
variety of vowels ; a particular sound being produced by each 
particular aperture. Moreover, in passing through an open 
mouth, the voice may be gently acted upon, by the lips, or by the 
tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat ; whence another 
source of variety in vowel sounds. 

Thus ten or twelve simple vowel sounds may be formed, agree- 
ably to the plan in page 13 ; and the learners, by observing the 
position of their mouth, lips, tongue, &c. when they are uttering 
the sounds, will perceive that various operations of these organs 
of speech, are necessary to the production of the different vowel 
sounds ; and that by minute variations they may all be distinctly 
pronounced. 

When the voice, in its passage through the mouth, is totally in 
tercepted, or strongly compressed, there is formed a certain modifi- 
cation of articulate sound, which, as expressed by a character 
in writing, is called a consonant. Silence is the effect of a total 
interception , and indistinct sound, of a strong compression ; and 
therefore a consonant is not of itself a distinct articulate voice ; 
and its influence in varying the tones of language is not clearly 
perceived, unless it be accompanied by an opening of the mouth, 
that is, by a vowel. f\ 

By making the experiment with attention, the student will per- 
ceive that each of the mutes is formed by the voice being intercept- 
ed, by the lips, by the tongue and palate, or by the tongue and 
throat; and that the semi-voivels are formed by the same organs 
stronghj compressing the voice in its passage, but not totally in- 
tercepting it. 

The elements of language, according to the differe it seats 
where they are formed, or the several organs of speech chiefly 
concerned in their pronunciation, are divided into several classes, 
and denominated as follows : those are called labials, which are 
formed by the lips ; those dentals, that are formed with the 
teeth , palatals, that are formed by the palate ; and nasals, that 
are formed by the nose. 

The importance of obtaining, in early life, a clear, distinct, and 
2 C 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

accurate knowledge of the sounds of the first principles of lan- 
guage, and a wish to lead young minds to a further considera- 
tion of a subject so curious and useful, have induced the com- 
piler to bestow particular attention on the preceding part of this 
work. Some writers think that these subjects do not properly 
constitute any part of grammar; and consider them as the ex- 
clusive province of the spelling-book; but if we reflect, that let- 
ters and their sounds are the constituent principles of that art, 
which teaches us to speak and write with propriety, and that, in 
general, very little knowledge of their nature is acquired by the 
spelling-book, we must admit, that they properly belong to gram- 
mar ; and that a rational consideration of these elementary prin- 
ciples of language is an object that demands the attention of the 
young grammarian. The sentiments of a very judicious and 
eminent writer (Quinctilian) respecting this part of grammar, 
may, perhaps, be properly introduced on the present occasion. 

t"Let no person despise, as inconsiderable, the elements of 
am mar, because it may seem to them a matter of small conse- 
quence, to show the distinction between vowels and consonants, 
and to divide the latter into liquids and mutes. But they who 
penetrate into the innermost parts of this temple of science, will 
there discover such refinement and subtility of matter, as are not 
only proper to sharpen the understandings of young persons, but 
sufficient to give exercise for the most profound knowledge and 
erudition/' 

The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, pro- 
duce a syllable; syllables properly combined produce a word ; 
words duly combined produce a sentence ; and sentences proper- 
ly combined produce an oration or discourse. Thus it is, says Har- 
ris, in his Hermes, that to principles apparently so trivial as a few 
plain elementary sounds, we owe that variety of articulate voices, 
which has been sufficient to explain the sentiments of so innume 
rable a multitude, as all the present and past generations of men 

CHAPTER II. 

OT SYLLABLES, AND THE RULES FOR J^ANGING THEM. 

A SYLLABLE is a sound, either simple or compound- 
ed, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and con- 
stituting a word, or part of a word : as, a, an, ant. 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their 
syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters. 

The following are the general rules for the division of words 
into syllables. 

1 A single consonant between two vowels, must be joined to 
. the latter syllable : as, de-light, bri-dal, re-source : except the 

letter x ; as, ex-ist, ex-amine : and except likewise words com- 
pounded ; as, up-on, un-even, dis-ease. 

2 Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be sepa- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

rated ; as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they come between two 
vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be di- 
vided ; as, ut-most, un-der, in-sect, er-ror, cof-fm. 

3 When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, if 
they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced 
long, they are not to be separated ; as, de-throne, de-stroy. But 
when the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, 
one of the consonants always belongs to that syllable ; as,, dis 
tract, dis-prove, dis-train. 

4 When three or four consonants, which are not proper to 
negin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them as can 
begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to the former sylla- 
ble : as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil, dan-dler, dap-ple, con- 
strain, hand-some, parch-ment. 

5 Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided into 
separate syllables ; as, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-e-ty. 

6 Compounded words must be traced into the simple words 
of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over- 
power, never-the-less. 

7 Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are gene- 
rally separated : as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, teach-er, 
contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed ; good-ness, free-dom, false-hood. 

The rules for dividing words into syllables, with the reasons in 
support of them, are expressed at large in the author's English 
Spelling-book, Thirteenth, or any subsequent, edition, page 210 
7 215. 

CHAPTER III. 
Of words in general, and the rules for spelling them. 

WORDS are articulate sounds, used by common con- 
sent, as signs of our ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a word 
of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a 
Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a Poly- 
syllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any 
simpler word in the language : as, man, good, content. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to ano- 
ther word in English of greater simplicity : as, manful, 
goodness, contentment, Yorkshire,* 

! There are many English words which, though compounds in 
other languages, are to us primitives: thus, circumspect, circum- 
vent, circumstance, delude, concave, complicate, &c. primitive 
words in English ; will be found derivatives, when traced in the 
Latin tongue. 

* A compound word is included under the head of derivative words : as, pen- 
e, teacup, lookingglass •» may be reduced to other words of greater simplicity, 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The orthography of the English Language is attended wi*h 
much uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of 
this inconvenience may be remedied, by attending to the general 
laws of formation ; and, for this end, the learner is presented with 
a view of such general maxims in spelling primitive and deriva- 
tive words, as have been almost universally received. 

, //«— RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending with/,Z, or s, preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant: as, staff, mill, pass, &c. The only 
exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus, 

RULE II. 

Monosyllables ending with any consonant buty, Z, or 5, and pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant ; ex- 
cepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 

^ RULE III. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the plu- 
rals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, 
comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i : as, spy, 
spies ; I carry, |hou carriest ; he carrieth, or carries; carrier, 
carried; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y, that i may not be 
doubled; as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying, &c. 

But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is 
not changed ; as, boy, boys : I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c. ; ex- 
cept in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and 
said ; and their compounds, unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c. 

RULE IV. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming 
an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly 
change y into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But when y is 
preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional 
syllable ; as, coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood : annoy, annoyer 
annoyance; joy, joyless, joyful. 

rule v. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that 
consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a 
vowel: as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abettor; to 
begin, a beginner. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding 
syllable, the consonant remains single : as, to toil, toiling ; to of- 
fer, an offering ; maid, maiden, &c. 

rule VI. 

Words ending with any double letter but Z, and taking ness, 
less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harm- 
lessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, 
&c. But those words which end with double Z, and take ntss, less % 
ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one Z ; as fulness, skillesg, 
fully, skilful, &c. 

RULE VII. 

Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent e, do 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 

not cut it off: as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful ; except in 
a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful. 

RULE VIII. 

Merit, added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves 
the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. 
The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are devia- 
tions from the rule. 

Like other terminations, merit changes?/ into i, when preceded by 
a consonant ; as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merriment. 

RULE IX. 

Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with silent e , 
almost always cut it off: as, blame, blamable ; cure, curable ; 
sense, sensible, &c. : but if c or g soft comes before e in the origi- 
nal word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with 
able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c. 

RU LE X. 

When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, the e 
is almost universally omitted : as, place, placing ; lodge, lodging ; 
slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 

RULE XI. 

Words taken into composition, often drop those letters which 
were superfluous in the simple words : as, handful, dunghil, with- 
al, also, chilblain, foretel. 

The orthography of a great number of English words is far from 
being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction. Thus, ho- 
nour and honor, inquire and enquire, negotiate and negotiate, con- 
trol and controul, expense and expence, allege and alledge, surprise 
and surprize, complete and compleat, connexion and connection, 
abridgment and abridgement, and many other orthographical va- 
riations, are to be met with in the best modern publications. 
Some authority for deciding differences of this nature, appears 
to be necessary: and where 'Can we find one of equal pretensions 
with Dr. Johnson's Dictionary ? though a few of his decisions do 
not appear to be warranted by the principles of etymology and 
analogy, the stable foundations of his improvements.—" As the 
weight of truth and reason (says Nares in his " Elements of Orthoe- 
py") is irresistible, Dr. Johnson's Dictionary has nearly fixed the 
external form of our language. Indeed, so convenient is it to have 
one acknowledged standard to recur to ; so much preferable, in 
matters of this nature, is a trifling degree of irregularity, to a 
continual change, and fruitless pursuit of unattainable perfection ; 
that it is earnestly to be hoped, that no author will henceforth, 
on light grounds, be tempted to innovate." 

This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical in- 
consistencies, which ought to be rectified: such as, immova bit 
moveable, chastely chastness, fertileness fertily, sliness slyly, fear- 
lessly fearlesness, needlessness needlesly. If these, and similar ir- 
regularities, were corrected by spelling the words analogically 
according to the first word in each part of the series, and agreea- 
bly to the general rules of spelling, the Dictionary would doubt- 
less, in these respects, be improved. 

C 2 



[ 30 ] 

PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 

A General Vieiv of the Parts of Speech. 

THE second part of grammar is etymology, which treats 
of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, 
and their derivation. 

There are, in English, nine sorts of words, or, as they are 
commonly called, parts of speech ; namely, the article, 
the substantive or noun, the adjective, the pronoun, 
the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, 
and the interjection. 

1 An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point 
them out, and to show how far their signification extends : 
as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 

2 A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing that 
exists, or of which we have any notion : as, London, man, 
virtue. 

A Substantive may, in general, be distinguished by its takin 
an article before it, or by its making sense of itself: as, a book 
the sun, an apple ; temperance, industry, chastity. 

3 An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to ex- 
press its quality : as, " An industrious man ; a virtuous wo- 
man." 

An Adjective may be known by its making sense with the ad- 
dition of the word thing : as, a good thing ; a bad thing : or of 
any particular substantive ; as, a sweet apple, & pleasant prospect, 
a lively boy. 

4 A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, " The 
man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful." 

5 A Verb is as word which signifies to be, to do, or to 
suffer : as, " I am / I rule; I am ruled." 

A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its making sense 
with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to before it: as, 
I walk, he plays, they write ; or, to walk, to play, to write. 

6 An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an 
adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some 
quality or circumstance respecting it : as, " He reads well $ 
a truly good man ; he writes very correctly " 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the 
question, How? how much ? when? or where ? as, in the phrase 
*• He reads correctly" the answer to the question, How does he 
read? is, correctly. 

7 Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, 
and to show the relation between them : as, " He went from 
London to York ;" "she is above disguise;" " they are sup- 
ported by industry." 

A Preposition may be known by its admitting after it a person- 
al pronoun, in the objective case; as, ivith,for, to, &c. will allow 
the objective case after them ; with him, for her, to them, &c. 

8 A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used 
to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences, 
to make but one : it sometimes connects only words : as, 
" Thou andhe are happy, because you are good." " Two 
and three are five." 

9 Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the 
speaker: as, " O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 

The observations which have been made, to aid learners in 
distinguishing the parts of speech from one another, may afford 
them some small assistance; but it will certainly be much more 
instructive, to distinguish them by the definitions, and an accu- 
rate knowledge of their nature. 

In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exemplified : 
1 272512 3 72 85 

The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man ; and was 
5 7474 3 2 71 38 

bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and 

6 3 2 89 6 654 5 47 

most excellent uses ; but alas ! how often do we pervert it to 
13 7 2 

he worst of purposes ! 

In the foregoing sentence, the words the, a, are articles ; power, 
speech, faculty, man, Creator, uses, purposes, are substantives ; pe- 
culiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, worst, are adjectives; him, his, 
we, it, are pronouns ; is, was, bestowed, do, pervert, are verbs ; 
most, how, often, are adverbs ; of, to, on, by, for, are prepositions 
and, but, are conjunctions ; and alas is an interjection. 

The number of the different sorts of words, or of the parts of 
speech, has been variously reckoned by different grammarians. 
Some have enumerated ten, making the participle a distinct part ; 
some eight, excluding the participle, and ranking the adjective 
under the noun ; some four, and others only two, (the noun and 
the verb,) supposing the rest to be contained in the parts of their 
division. We have followed those authors, who appear to have 



32 ENGLISPI GRAMMAR. 

given them the most natural and intelligible distribution. Some 
remarks on the division made by the learned Home Tooke, are 
contained in the first section of the eleventh chapter of etymology. 
The interjection, indeed, seems scarcely worthy of being con- 
sidered as a part of artificial language or speech, being rather a 
branch of that natural language, which we possess in common 
with the brute creation, and by which we express the sudden 
emotions and passions that actuate our frame. But, as it is used 
in written as well as oral language, it may, in some measure, be 
deemed &, part of speech. It is with us, a virtual sentence, in 
which the noun and verb are concealed under an imperfect or 
indigested word. — See this Chapter, in the octavo Grammar 

CHAPTER II. 
OF THE ARTICLES. 

AN ARTICLE is a word prefixed to substantives, to point 
them out, and to show how far their signification extends ; 
as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 

In English, there are but two articles, a and the : a be- 
comes an before a vowel,* and before a silent h ; as, an 
acorn, an hour. But if the h be sounded, the a only is to 
be used ; as, a hand, a heart, a highway. 

The inattention of writers and printers to this necessary dis- 
tinction, has occasioned the frequent use of an before h, when it 
is to be pronounced ; and this circumstance, more than any other, 
has probably contributed to that indistinct utterance, or total 
omission, of the sound signified by this letter, which very often 
occurs amongst readers and speakers. An horse, an husband, 
an herald, an heathen, and many similar associations, are fre- 
quently to be found in works of taste and merit. To remedy this 
evil, readers should be taught tc omit, in all similar cases, the 
sound of the n, and to give the h its full pronunciation. 

A or an is styled the indefinite article : it is used in a vague 
sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other 
respects indeterminate : as, " Give me a book;" " Bring 
me an apple." 

The is called the definite article ; because it ascertains 
what particular thing or things are meant : as, " Give me 
the book ;" " Bring me the apples ;" meaning some book, 
or apples, referred to. 

A substantive without any article to limit it, is generally 
taken in its widest sense : as, " A candid temper is propei 
for man ;" that is, for all mankind. 

* A instead of an is now used before words beginning with u lon#. Set page 
22, letter U. It is also used before one; as, many a one. 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be seen m 
the following examples ;"the son of a king — the son of the king 
— a son of the king." Each of these three phrases has an entire* 
ly different meaning, through the different application of the arti- 
cles a and the. 

" Thou art a man," is a very general and harmless position ; 
but, "Thou art the man," (as Nathan said to David,) is an asser- 
tion capable of striking terror and remorse into the heart. 

The article is omitted before nouns that imply the different vir- 
tues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; 
as, " prudence is commendable ; falsehood is odious ; anger ought 
to be avoided ;" &c. It is not prefixed to a proper name ; as, 
"Alexander," (because that of itself denotes a determinate indi- 
vidual or particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing 
a particular family : as, " He is a Howard, or of the family of the 
Howards;" or by way of eminence: as, "every man is not a 
Newton ;" " He has the courage of an Achilles:" or when some 
noun is understood ; " He sailed down the (river.) Thames, in the 
(ship) Britannia." 

When an adjective is used with the noun to which the article 
relates, it is placed between the article and the noun ; as, " a 
good man," " an agreeable woman," " the best friend." On some 
occasions, however, the adjective precedes a or an; as, "such a 
shame," " as great a man as Alexander," " too careless an author." 

The indefinite article can be joined to substantives in the singu- 
lar number only ; the definite article may be joined also to plurals. 

But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in 
the use of the adjectives few and many, (the latter chiefly with 
the word great before it,) which, though joined with plural sub- 
stantives, yet admit of the singular article a : as, a few men ; a 
great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the article 
has in these phrases ; it means a small or great number collec- 
tively taken, and therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of 
unity. Thus likewise, a dozen, a score, a hundred, or a thou- 
sand, is one whole number, an aggregate of many collectively 
taken ; and therefore still retains the article a, though joined as 
an adjective to a plural substantive ; as, a hundred years, &c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjec- 
tive many, and a singular noun : as, 

"Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

" The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean hear: 
tt Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
" And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 
In these lines, the phrases, many a gem and many aflow'r* refer to 
many gems and many flowers, separately, not collectively consi- 
dered. 

The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the 
comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect is, to mark the 
degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely : as 
2* 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The more I examine it, the better I like it. I liKe this the least 
of any." See this Chapter, in the Octavo Grammar 

CHAPTER III. 

OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

SECTION I. Of Substantives in general 

A SUBSTANTIVE or Noun is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we have any notion : as, London^ 
man, virtue. 

Substantives are either proper or common. 

Proper names or substantives, are the names appropri 
ated to individuals : as, George, London, Thames. 

Common names or substantives, stand for kinds contain- 
ing many sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals 
under them ; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 

When proper names have an article annexed to them 
they are used as common names : as, " He is the Cicero ol 
his age ; he is reading the lives of the Twelve Ccesars." 

Common names may also be used to signify individuals, by 
the addition of articles or pronouns : as, " The boy is studi- 
ous ; that girl is discreet."* 

To substantives belong gender, number, and case ; and 
they are all of the third person when spoken of, and of 
the second when spoken to : as, " Blessings attend us on 
every side ; be grateful, children of men !" that is, ye chil- 
dren of men. 

SECTION II. Of Gender. 

GENDER is the distinction of nouns, with regard to sex. 
There are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and 

NEUTER. 

The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male kind : 
as, a man, a horse, a bull. 

The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the female 
kind : as, a woman, a duck, a hen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither 
males nor females : as, a field, a house, a garden. 

Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of 
speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender : 

* Nouns may also be divided into the following classes : Collective nouns, 01 
nouns of multitude; as, the people, the parliament, the army: Abstract nouns, 
or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knowledge, gowj 
ness, whiteness ; Verbal or participial nouns ; as, beginning, reading, writing* 



ETYMOLOGY 



65 



«ts, when we say of the sun, he is setting ; and of a ship, she 
(sails well. 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the 
masculine gender to nouns which are conspicuous for the attri- 
butes of imparting or communicating, and which are by naturo 
strong and efficacious. Those, again, are made feminine, which 
are conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, 
or which are peculiarly beautiful or amiable. Upon these prin- 
ciples, the sun is said to be masculine ; and the moon, being the 
receptacle of the sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is gene- 
rally feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise made 
feminine, being receivers or containers. Time is always mascu- 
line, on account of its mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from 
its beauty, and its being the object of love. Fortune and the 
church are generally put in the feminine gender. 

The English language has three methods of distinguishing the 
sex, viz. 

1. By different words : as, 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor. 


Maid. 


Husband. 


Wife. 


Boar. 


Sow. 


King. 


Queen. 


Boy. 


Girl. 


Lad. 


Lass. 


Brother. 


Sister. 


Lord. 


Lady. 


Buck. 


Doe. 


Man. 


Woman. 


Bull. 


Cow. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Bullock or j 


> Heifer 


Milter. 


Spawner 


Steer. < 


Nephew. 


Niece. 


Cock. 


*Hen. 


Ram. 


Ewe. 


Dog. 


Bitch. 


Singer. 


{ Songstress or 


Drake. 


Duck. 


I Singer. 


Earl. 


Countess. 


Sloven. 


Slut. 


Father. 


Mother. 


Son. 


Daughter 


Friar. 


Nun. 


Stag. 


Hind. 


Gander. 


Goose. 


Uncle. 


Aunt. 


Hart. 


Roe. 


Wizard. 


Witch. 


Horse. 


Mare. 






2 


. By a difference of termination 


: as, 


JVIale. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot. 


Abbess. 


Landgrave. 


Landgravine. 


Actor. 


Actress. 


Lion. 


Lioness. 


Adminstrator. 


Administratrix. Marquis. 


Marchioness. 


Adulterer. 


Adultress. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Ambassador. 


Ambassadress. 


, Mayor. 


Mayoress. 


Arbiter. 


Arbitress. 


Patron. 


Patroness. 


Baron. 


Baroness. 


Peer. 


Peeress. 


Bridegroom. 


Bride. 


Poet. 


Poetess. 


Benefactor. 


Benefactress. 


Priest. 


Priestess, 


Caterer. 


Cateress. 


Prince. 


Princess. 


Chanter. 


Chantress. 


Prior. 


Prioress. 



36 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Conductor. 


Conductress. 


Prophet. 


Prophetess. 


Count. 


Countess. 


Protector. 


Protectress. 


Deacon. 


Deaconess. 


Shepherd. 


Shepherdess. 


Duke. 


Duchess, 


Songster. 


Songstress. 


Elector. 


Electress. 


Sorcerer. 


Sorceress. 


Emperor. 


Empress. 


Sultan. 


< Sultaness, or 
I Sultana. 


Enchanter. 


Enchantress. 


Executor. 


Executrix. 


Tiger. 


Tigress. 


Governor. 


Governess. 


Traitor. 


Traitress. 


Heir. 


Heiress. 


Tutor. 


Tutoress. 


Hero. 


Heroine. 


Viscount. 


Viscountess 


Hunter. 


Huntress. 


Votary. 


Votaress. 


Host. 


Hostess. 


Widower. 


Widow. 


Jew. 


Jewess. 







3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed to the sub- 
stantive: as, 

A cock-sparrow. A hen-sparrow. 

A man-servant. A maid-servant. 

A he-goat. A she-goat. 

A he-bear. A she-bear. 

A male child. A female child. 

Male descendants,, Female descendants. 

It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either masculine 
or feminine. The words parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbour, 
servant, and several others, are used indifferently for males or 
females. 

Nouns with variable terminations contribute to conciseness and 
perspicuity of expression. We have only a sufficient number of 
them to make us feel our want ; for when we say of a woman, 
she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, we per- 
ceive an impropriety in the termination, which we cannot avoid ; 
but we can say, that she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a 
scholar, an orphan, a companion, because these terminations 
have not annexed to them the notion of sex. 

SECTION III. Of Number. 

NUMBER is the consideration of an object, as one or 
more. 

Substantives are of two numbers, the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number expresses but one object; as, a 
chair, a table. 

The plural number signifies more objects than one ; as, 
chairs, tables. 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they 
express, are used only in the singular form ; as, wheat 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. ; others, only in the plural form ; 
as, bellows^ scissors, lungs, riches, &c. 

Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, 
sheep, swine, &c. 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by add- 
ing s to the singular : as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; thought, 
thoughts. But when the substantive singular ends in i, 
< h soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural : as, box, boxes ; 
church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebusses. 
If the singular ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by ad- 
ding s; as, monarch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 

Nouns which end in 0, have sometimes €5, added to the plural ; 
as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo : and 
sometimes only s ; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio. 

Nouns ending in f, or/e, are rendered plural by the change of 
those terminations into ves : as, loaf, loaves ; half, halves ; wife, 
wives : except grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which 
form the plural by the addition of s. Those which end in^, have 
the regular plural : as, ruff, ruffs ; except, staff, staves,, 

Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in 
the same syllable, change it into ies in the plural : as, beauty, 
beauties ; fly, flies. But the y is not changed, when there is ano- 
ther vowel in the syllable : as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; attor- 
ney, attorneys. 

Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular 
into e: as, man, men; woman, women; alderman, aldermen. 
The words, ox and child, form oxen and children ; brother, 
makes either brothers, or brethren. Sometimes the diphthong 
00 is changed into ee in the plural: as, foot, feet; goose, geese ; 
tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse make lice and mice. Penny 
makes pence, or pennies, when the coin is meant : die, dice (for 
play ;) die, dies (for coining,) 

It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the generality of 
correct writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns ; 
pains, riches, alms : and also, mathematics, metaphysics, politics, 
ethics, optics, pneumatics, with other similar names of sciences. 

Dr. Johnson says that the adjective much is sometimes a term 
of number, as well as of quantity. This may account for the in- 
stances we meet with of its associating with pains as a plural 
noun : as, " much pains." The connexion, however, is not to be 
recommended. 

The word news is now almost universally considered as be 
longing to the singular number. 

The noun means is used both in the singular arid the plural 
number. 

The following words, which have been adopted from the He- 
Drew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, with 
respect to number. 



38 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. Plural. Singular. 

Chorub. Cherubim. Datum. 

Seraph. Seraphim. Effluvium. 

Antithesis. Antitheses « 

Automaton. Automata. Encomium. 

Basis. Bases. Erratum. 

Crisis. Crises. Genius. 

Criterion. Criteria. Genus. 

Diaeresis. Diaereses. T , 

Ellipsis. Ellipses. maex. 

Emphasis. Emphases. Lamina. 

Hypothesis. Hypotheses. Medium. 
Metamorphosis. Metamorphoses.Magus. 

Phenomenon. Phaenomena. Memoran- 

{ Appendices or dum. 

I Appendixes. Radius. 

Arcanum. Arcana. Stamen. 

Axis. Axes. Stratum. 

Calx. Calces. Vortex. 



Appendix. 



Plural. 
Data. 
Effluvia 
J Encomia, or 
I Encomiums 
Errata. 
Genii.* 
Genera. 
J Indices or 
I Indexes/)- 
Laminae. 
Media. 
Magi. 
J Memoranda or 
( Memorandums. 
Radii. 
Stamina. 
Strata. 
Vortices. 



Some words, derived from the learned languages, are confined 
to the plural number : as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minutiae. 

The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and plural, 
are used in the same manner when adopted into our tongue : 
hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

SECTION IV. Of Case. 

In English, substantives have three cases, the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective.} 

The nominative case simply expresses the name of a 
thing, or the subject of the verb : as, " The boy plays ;" 
14 The girls learn." 

The possessive case expresses the relation of property or 
possession ; and has an apostrophe with the letter s coming 
after it : as, " The scholars duty ;" " My father's house." 

When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the 
apostrophe is retained: as, "on eagles' wings;" "The 
drapers' company." 

Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss, the 
apostrophic s is not added : as, " For goodness' sake ;" 
" For righteousness' sake." 

The objective case expresses the object of an action, or of 
a relation ; and generally follows a verb active, or a prepo- 
sition : as, " John assists Charles ;" " They live in London." 

* Genii, when denoting aerial spirits : Geniuses, when signifying persons of genius 
f Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or Tables of contents: Indices, when re- 
ferring to Algebraic quantities. ^ 

I The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case ; and the objective, the 
accusative, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



39 



English substantives are declined in the following manner i 



Nominative, Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 
Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 



Singular. Plura-7 

A mother. Mothers. 

A mothers. Mothers'. 

A mother. Mothers. 

The man. The men. 

The man's. The men's. 

The man. The men. 

The English language, to express different connexions and re- 
lations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, preposi- 
tions. The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and some too 
among the modern languages, as the German, vary the termina- 
tion or ending of the substantive, to answer the same purpose; 
an example of which, in the Latin, is inserted, as explanatory of 
the nature and use of cases, viz. 

Singular. 
Nominative. Dominus, 

Genitive* Domini, 

Dative. Domino, 

Accusative* Dominum 

Vocative. Domine, 

Ablative. Domino, 

Plural. 
Nominative* Domini, 

Genitive. Do mi no rum, 

Dative. Do minis, 

Accusative. Dominos, 

Vocative. Domini, 

Ablative. Do minis, 

Some writers think, that the relations signified by the addition 
of articles and prepositions to the noun, may properly be de- 
nominated cases, in English ; and that, on this principle, there 
are, in our language, as many cases as in the Latin tongue. But 
to this mode of forming cases for our substantives, there are strong 
objections. It would, indeed, be a formal and useless arrange- 
ment of nouns, articles, and prepositions. If an arrangement of 
this nature were to be considered as constituting cases, the Eng- 
lish language would have a much greater number of them than 
the Greek and Latin tongues: for, as every preposition has its 
distinct meaning and effect, every combination of a preposition 
and article with the noun would form a different relation, and 
woald constitute a distinct case. — This would encumber our lan- 
guage with many new terms, and a heavy and useless load of 
distinctions.* 

* If cases are to be distinguished by the different significations of the noun, or 
by the different relations it may bear to the governing word, then we have in our 
language as many cases almost, as there are prepositions : and above a man, 
beneath a man, beyond a man, round about a man, within a man, without a 
man, &c. snail be cases, as well as of a man, to a man, and with a man." 

Dr Beattie 



A Lord. 

Lord's, of a Lord. 

To a Lord. 

A Lord. 

O Lord. 

By a Lord. 

Lords 

Lords', of Lords. 

To Lords. 

Lords. 

O Lords. 

By Lords. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

On the principle of imitating other languages in names and 
forms, without a correspondence in nature and idiom, we might 
adopt a number of declensions, as well as a variety of cases, for 
English substantives. Thus, five or six declensions, distinguished 
according to the various modes of forming the plural of substan- 
tives, with at least half a dozen cases to each declension, would 
furnish a complete arrangement of English nouns, in all their 
trappings. See on this subject, the fifth and ninth sections of the 
sixth chapter of etymology. 

But though this variety of cases does not at all correspond with 
the idiom of our language, there seems to be great propriety in 
admitting a case in English substantives, which shall serve to de- 
note the objects of active verbs and of prepositions; and which is, 
therefore, properly termed the objective case. The general idea 
of case doubtless has a reference to the termination of the noun : 
but there are many instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which 
the nominative and accusative cases have precisely the same 
form, and are distinguished only by the relation they bear to 
other words in the sentence. We are therefore warranted, by 
analogy, in applying this principle to our own language, as far as 
utility, and the idiom of it, will admit. Now it is obvious, that in 
English, a noun governed by an active verb, or a preposition, is 
very differently circumstanced, from a noun in the nominative, 
or in the possessive case ; and that a comprehensive case, cor- 
respondent to that difference, must be useful and proper. The 
business of parsing, and of showing the connexion and depend- 
ence of words, will be most conveniently accomplished, by the 
adoption of such a case ; and the irregularity of having our nouns 
sometimes placed in a situation, in which they cannot be said to 
be in any case at all, will be avoided. 

The author of this work long doubted the propriety of assign- 
ing to English substantives an objective case : but a renewed, 
critical examination of the subject, an examination to which he 
was prompted by the extensive and increasing demand for the 
grammar, has produced in his mind a full persuasion, that the 
nouns of our language are entitled to this comprehensive objec- 
tive case. 



When the thing to which another is said to belong, is express- 
ed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of the posses- 
sive case is commonly added to the last term : as, " The king of 
Great Britain's dominions." 

Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive case 
immediately succeed each other, in the following form: "My 
friend's wife's sister ;" a sense which would be better expressed 
by saying, "the sister of my friend's wife ;" or, "my friend's sis- 
ter-in-law." Some grammarians say, that in each of the follow- 
ing phrases, viz. "A book of my brother's," " A servant of the 
queen's," "A soldier of the king's," there are two genitive cases 
the first phrase implying, " one of the books of my brother," the 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

next, "one of the servants of the queen ;" and the last, "one of 
the soldiers of the king." But as the preposition governs the ob- 
jective case ; and as there are not, in each of these sentences, 
two apostrophes with the letter s coming after them, we cannot 
with propriety say, that there are two genitive cases. 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF OBJECTIVES. 

SECTION I. Of the nature of Adjectives, and the degrees of 

comparison. 

An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to ex- 
press its quality : as, " An industrious man ;" " A virtuous 
woman ;" " A benevolent mind." 

In English, the adjective is not varied on account of gen- 
der, number, or case. Thus we say, " A careless boy ; 
careless girls." 

The only variation which it admits, is that of the degrees 
of comparison. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees of compari- 
son ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

Grammarians have generally enumerated these three de- 
grees of comparison ; but the first of them has been thought by 
some writers, to be, improperly, termed a degree of comparison ; 
as it seems to be nothing more than the simple form of the ad- 
jective, and not to imply either comparison or degree. This 
opinion may be well founded, unless the adjective be supposed 
to imply comparison or degree, by containing a secret or general 
reference to other things : as, when we say, " he is a tall man," 
"this is a. fair day," we make some reference to the ordinary 
size of men, and to different weather. 

The Positive state expresses the quality of an object, 
without any increase or diminution : as, good, wise, great. 

The Comparative Degree increases or lessens the posi 
tive in signification : as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The Superlative Degree increases or lessens the positive 
to the highest or lowest degree : as, wisest, greatest, least 
wise. 

The simple word, or positive, becomes the comparative, 
by adding r or er; and the superlative, by adding st or est, to 
the end of it : as, wise, wiser, wisest, great, greater, greatest 
And the adverbs more and most, placed before the adjec- 
tive, have the same effect : as, w r ise, more wise, most wise. 

The termination ish may be accounted in some sort a degree 
of comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the 

D2 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

positive : as, black, blackish, or tending to blackness ; salt, saltveh 
or having a little taste of salt. 

The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree 
or excess of a quality : as, " she is rather profuse in her expenses." 

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er and est ; 
and dissyllables by more and most: as, mild, milder, mildest ; fru- 
gal, more frugal, most frugal. Dissyllables ending in y ; as, 
happy, lovely ; and in le after a mute, as, able, ample ; or accent- 
ed on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite ; easily admit of er and 
est: as, happier, happiest ; abler, ablest ; politer, politest. Words 
of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of those terminations. 

In some words the superlative is formed by adding the adverb 
most to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, or utmost, 
undermost, uppermost, foremost. 

In English,, as in most languages, there are some words of 
very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get 
the better of analogy,) that are irregular in this respect : as, 
" good, better, best ; bad, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much or 
many, more, most ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest 
or last ; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest ;" and a few others. 

An adjective put without a substantive, with the definite ar- 
ticle before it, becomes a substantive in sense and meaning, and 
is written as a substantive ; as, " Providence rewards the good, 
and punishes the bad" 

Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the nature of 
adjectives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c. 

Numeral adjectives are either cardinal, or ordinal : cardinal, as, 
one, two, three, &c. ; ordinal, as, first, second, third, &c. 

SECTION II. Remarks on the subject of Comparison. 

IF we consider the subject of comparison attentively, we shall 
perceive that the degrees of it are infinite in number, or at least 
indefinite. — A mountain is larger than a mite ; — by how many 
degrees ? How much bigger is the earth than a grain of sand ? 
By how many degrees was Socrates wiser than Aieibiades ? or by 
how many is snow whiter than this paper ? It is plain, that to 
these and the like questions, no definite answers can be returned. 

In quantities, however, that may be exactly measured, the de- 
grees of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot is just twelve 
times as long as an inch ; and an hour is sixty times the length 
of a minute. But, in regard to qualities, and to those quantities 
which cannot be measured exactly, it is impossible to say how 
many degrees may be comprehended in the comparative excess. 

But though these degrees are infinite or indefinite in fact, they 
cannot be so in language ; nor would it be convenient, if lan- 
guage were to express many of them. In regard to unmeasured 
quantities and qualities, the degrees of more and less, (besides 
those marked above,) may be expressed intelligibly, at least, if 
not accurately, by certain adverbs, or words of like import : as, 
" Socrates was much wiser than Aieibiades ;" " Snow is a great 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

deal whiter than this paper ;" " Epaminondas was by far the most 
accomplished of the Thebans ;" " The evening star is a very 
splendid object, but the sun is incomparably more splendid ;" 
" The Deity is infinitely greater than the greatest of his crea 
tures." The inaccuracy of these, and the like expressions, is 
not a material inconvenience ; and, if it were, it is unavoidable : 
for human speech can only express human thought; and where 
thought is necessarily inaccurate, language must be so too. 

Wheo the word very, exceedingly, or any other of similar im- 
port, is put before the positive, it is called by some writers the 
superlative of eminence, to distinguish it from the other superla- 
tive, which has been already mentioned, and is called the super- 
lative of comparison. Thus, very eloquent, is termed the super- 
lative of eminence ; most eloquent, the superlative of comparison. 
In the superlative of eminence, something of comparison is, how- 
ever, remotely or indirectly intimated ; for we cannot reasona- 
bly call a man very eloquent, without comparing his eloquence 
with the eloquence of other men. 

The comparative may be so employed, as to express the same 
pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. Thus, the sen- 
tence, " Of all acquirements, virtue is the most valuable" con- 
veys the same sentiment as the following: "Virtue is more 
valuable than every other acquirement." 

CHAPTER V. 
OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, " The 
man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful." 

There are three kinds of pronouns, viz. the personal, 
the relative, and the adjective pronouns. 

SECTION I. Of the Personal Pronouns. 

There are five Personal Pronouns, viz. I, thou, he, she, 
it ; with their plurals, we, ye, or you, they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, 
and case. 

The persons of pronouns are three in each number, viz. 

/, is the first person ) 

Thou, is the second person > Singular. 

He, she, or it, is the third person j 

We is the first person 1 

fe or you, is the second person > Plural. 

They, is the third person 3 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when we re- 
flect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of any 
discourse : first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself 



44 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addresses him- 
self; thirdly, he may speak of some other person: and as the 
speakers, the persons spoken to, and the other persons spoken 
of, may be many, so each of these persons must have the plu- 
ral number. 

The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, 
are two, the singular and the plural : as, 7, thou, he, we, ye 
or you, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person singular 
of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine; she is femi- 
nine ; it is neuter. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time 
the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present ; from 
which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, 
and needs not to be marked by a distinction of gender in the 
pronouns : but the third person, or thing spoken of, being absent, 
and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be 
marked by a distinction of gender; at least when some particu- 
lar person or thing is spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly 
marked : accordingly the pronoun singular of the third per- 
son has the three genders, he, she, it. 

Pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form differ- 
ent from that of the nominative, or the possessive case. 



The personal pronouns are thus declined : 



Person. 

First. 


. Case. 

Nom. 


Singular. 

i. 




Poss. 


Mine. 


Second. 


Obj. 

Nom. 


Me. 
Thou. 




Poss. 


Thine. 


Third. 


Obj. 
Mom. 


Thee 
He. 


Mas. 


Poss. 


His. 


Third. 


Obj. 
Nom. 


Him. 
She. 


Fern. 


Poss. 


Hers. 


Third. 


Obj. 
Nom. 


Her. 
It. 


Neuter. 


Poss. 


Its 




Obj. 


It. 



Plural. 

We. 

Ours. 

Us. 

Ye or you. 

Yours. 

You. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them. 

They. 

Theirs. 

Them 



ETYMOLOGY 45 

SECTION II. Of the Relative Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general, to 
some word or phrase going before, which is thence called 
the antecedent : they are, zoho, which, and that : as, " The 
man is happy who lives virtuously.' J * 

What is a kind of compound relative, including both the 
antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent to 
that which : as, " This is what I wanted ;" that is to say, 
11 the thing which I wanted." 

Who is applied to persons, which to animals and inani- 
mate things : as, " He is & friend, who is faithful in adver- 
sity ;" " The bird, which sung so sweetly, is flown ;" " This 
is the tree, which produces no fruit." 

That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent 
repetition of who and which. It is applied to both persons 
and things: as, "He that acts wisely deserves praise;" 
* Modesty is a quality that highly adorns a woman." 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative. Who. 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 

Which, that, and what, are likewise of both numbers, but they 
do not vary their termination ; except that whose is sometimes 
used as the possessive case of which : as, " Is there any other 
doctrine whose followers are punished ?" 

" And the fruit 

Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 

Brought death." milton. 

" Pure the joy without allay, 

Whose very rapture is tranquillity." young 

"The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife 
Gives all the strength and colour of our life." pope. 
" This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being a reli 
gion whose origin is divine." . blair. 

By the use of this license, one word is substituted for three: 
as, " Philosophy, ivhose end is to instruct us in the knowledge oi 
nature," for, " Philosophy, the end of which is to instruct us," &e. 
Who, which, and what, have sometimes the words soever and eve? 
annexed to them; as, "whosoever or whoever, whichsoever or 
whichever, whatsoever or whatever :" but they are seldom used 111 
modern style. 

* The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a wore/ or 
phrase which is not antecedent but subsequent to the relative. See note under 
the VI. Kule of Syntax. 



AG ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The word that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demon- 
strative pronoun, and sometimes a conjunction. It is a relative, 
when it may be turned into who or which without destroying the 
sense : as, " They that (who) reprove us, may be our best friends ;" 
" From every thing that (which) you see, derive instruction." It 
is a demonstrative pronoun when it is followed immediately by 
a substantive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which it 
limits or qualifies : as, u That boy is industrious ;" " That belongs 
to rne ;" meaning, that book, that desk, &c. It is a conjunction, 
when it joins sentences together, and cannot be turned into who 
or ivhich, without destroying the sense : as, u Take care that every 
day be well employed." " I hope he will believe that I have not 
acted improperly." 

Who, which, and what, are called Interrogatives, when they are 
used in asking questions ; as, " Who is he ?" " Which is the book ?" 
" \Vhat art thou doing ?" 

Whether was formerly made use of to signify interrogation : as, 
" Whether of these shall I choose ?" but it is now seldom used, the 
interrogative which being substituted for it. Some grammari- 
ans think that the use of it should be revived, as, like either and 
neither, it points to the dual number ; and would contribute to 
render our expressions concise and definite. 

Some writers have classed the interrogatives as a separate kind 
of pronouns ; but they are too nearly related to the relative pro- 
nouns, both in nature and form, to render such a division pro- 
per. They do not, in fact, lose the character of relatives, 
when they become interrogatives. The only difference is, that 
without an interrogation, the relatives have reference to a sub- 
ject which is antecedent, definite, and known ; with an interro- 
gation, to a subject which is subsequent, indefinite, and unknown, 
and which it is expected that the answer should express and as- 
certain. 

A ^ I SECTION III. Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating 
the properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four 
sorts, namely, the possessive, the distributive, the demon- 
strative, and the indefinite. 

1 The possessive are those which relate to possession 
or property. There are seven of them ; viz. my, thy, his, 
her, our, your, their. 

Mine and thine, instead of n\y and thy, were formerly used be- 
fore a substantive, or adjective, beginning with a vowel, or a si- 
lent h : as, "Blot out all mine iniquities." 

The pronouns, his, mine, thine, have the same form, whether 
they are possessive pronouns, or the possessive cases of their le- 
spective personal pronouns. See note to Rule 10. 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

A few examples will probably assist the learner, to distinguish 
ihe possessive pronouns from the genitive cases of their corres 
pondent personal pronouns, 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns. — 
'' My lesson is finished; Thy books are defaced; He loves his 
studies ; She performs her duty ; We own our faults ; Your situa- 
tion is distressing ; I admire their' virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive cases of the per- 
gonal pronouns. — "This desk is mine ; the other is thine; These 
trinkets are his ; those are hers ; This house is ours, and that is 
yours ; Theirs is very commodious." 

Some grammarians consider its as a possessive pronoun. 

The two words own and self, are used in conjunction with pro- 
nouns. Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural: 
as, "My own hand, our own house." It is emphatical, and im- 
plies a silent contrariety or opposition : as, " I live in my own 
house," that is, " not in a hired house." Self is added to posses- 
sives : as, myself yourselves ; and sometimes to personal pro- 
nouns : as, himself itself themselves. It then, like own, expresses 
emphasis and opposition : as, " I did this myself," thar*'is, " not 
another;" or it forms a reciprocal pronoun: as, "We hurt our- 
selves by vain rage." 

Himself, themselves, are now used in the nominative case, in 
stead of hisself theirselves ; as, "He came himself;" "He him- 
self shall do this;" "They performed it themselves." 

2 The distributive are those which denote the persons 
or things that make up a number, as taken separately and 
singly. They are each, every, either : as, " Each of his 
brothers is in a favourable situation ;" " Every man must 
account for himself;" " I have not seen either of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies 
either of the two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each 
one of them all taken separately. This pronoun was formerlv 
used apart from its noun, but it is now constantly annexed to it, ex- 
cept in legal proceedings : as in the phrase, " all and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and 
signifies the one or the other. To say, " either of the three," is- 
therefore improper. 

Neither imports " not either ;" that is, not one nor the other : as, 
"Neither of my friends was there.'' 

3 The demonstrative are those which precisely point out 
the subjects to which they relate : this and that, these and 
those, are of this class : as, " This is true charity ; that is 
only its image." 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to the 
most distant : as, " This man is more intelligent than that.' 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This indicates the latter or last mentioned ; thai, the former 
or first mentioned : as, M Both wealth and poverty are 
temptations ; that, tends to excite pride, this, discontent." 

Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly ranked 
amongst the demonstrative pronouns, especially in many of 
their applications. The following sentence may serve as an ex- 
ample : " It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in 
the command with Minucius: the former's phlegm was a check 
upon the latter's vivacity." 

4 The indefinite are those which express their subjects 
in an indefinite or general manner. The following are ol 
this kind : some, other, any, one, all, such, &c. 

Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are varied 
One has a possessive case, which it forms in the same manner 
as substantives : as, one, one's. This word has a general signifi- 
cation, meaning people at large ; and sometimes also a peculiar 
reference to the person who is speaking : as, " One ought to p\\ 
the distresses of mankind." "One is apt to love one's self." 
This word is often used, by good writers, in the plural number ■ 
as, " The great ones of the world ;" " The boy wounded the ok' 
bird, and stole the young ones;" " My wife and the little one* 
are in good health." 

Other is declined in the following manner : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Other Others 

Poss. Other's Others' 

Obj. Other Others. 

The plural others is only used when apart from the noun to 
which it refers, whether expressed or understood : as, " When 
you have perused thes« papers, I will send you the others." u He 
pleases some, but he disgusts others." When this pronoun i» 
joined to nouns, either singular or plural, it has no variation: as, 
" the other man," " the other men." 

The following phrases may serve to exemplify the indefinite 
pronouns. "Some of you are wise and good ;" "A few of them 
were idle, the others industrious ;" " Neither is there any that is 
unexceptionable ;" " One ought to know one's own mind ;" " They 
were all present;" " Such is the state of man, that he is never at 
rest ;" " Some are happy, while others are miserable." 

The word another is composed of the indefinite article prefixed 
to the word other. 

None is used in both numbers: as, "None is so deaf as he that 
will not hear ;" " None of those are equal to these." It seems 
originally to have signified, according to its derivation, not one, 
and therefore to have had no plural ; but there is good authority 
for the use of it in the plural number; as, "None that go unto 
her return again." Prov. ii. 19. " Terms of peace were none 
Vouchsaf'd." milton. "Nme of them are varied to express the 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

gender." " None of them have different endings for the numbers. * 
Lowth's Introduction. "None of their productions are extant." 
Blair. 

We have endeavoured to explain the nature of the adjective 
pronouns, and to distinguish and arrange them intelligibly : but 
it is difficult, perhaps impracticable, to define and divide them in 
a manner perfectly unexceptionable. Some of them, in particu- 
lar, may seem to require a different arrangement. We presume, 
however, that, for every useful purpose, the present classification 
is sufficiently correct. All the pronouns, except the personal ana 
relative, may indeed, in a general view of them, be considered as 
definitive pronouns, because they define or ascertain the extent of 
the common name, or general term, to which they refer, or are 
joined ; but as each class of them does this, more or less exactly, 
or in a manner peculiar to itself, a division adapted to this cir- 
cumstance appears to be suitable to the nature of things, and the 
understanding of learners. 

It is the opinion of some respectable grammarians, that the 
words this, that, any, some, such, his, their, our, &c. are pronouns, 
when they are used separately from the nouns to which they re- 
late ; but that, when they are joined to those nouns, they are not 
fo be considered as belonging to this species of words; because, 
■ n this association, they rather ascertain a substantive, than sup- 
ply the place of one. They assert that, in the phrases, " give me 
that," "this is John's," and "such were some of you," the words 
rn italics are pronouns ; but that, in the following phrases, the} 
are not pronouns ; "this book is instructive," " some boys are in- 
genious." " my health is declining," " our hearts are deceitful," &c. 
Other grammarians think, that all these words are pure adjec- 
tives; and that none of them can properly be called pronouns; 
as the genuine, pronoun stands by itself, without the aid of a 
noun expressed or understood. They are of opinion, that in the 
expressions, " Give me that," " this is John's," &c. the noun is 
always understood, and must be supplied in the mind of the 
reader: as, "Give me that book;" "this book is John's;" " and 
such persons were some persons amongst you." 

Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns should be classed 
into substantive and adjective pronouns. Under the former, they 
include the personal and the relative ; under the latter, all the 
ethers. But this division, though a neat one, does not appear to 
be accurate. All the relative pronouns will not range under the 
substantive head. — We have distributed these parts of grammar, 
in the mode which we think most correct and intelligible : but, 
for the information of students, and to direct their inquiries on 
ibe subject, we state the different opinions of several judicious 
grammarians. See the Octavo Grammar on these points. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER VI. 

OF VERBS. 

SECTION I. Of the nature of Verbs in general. 

A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suf 
fer ; as, " I am, I rale, I am ruled." 

Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, and neuter 
They are also divided into regular, irregular, and de- 
fective. 

A Verb Active expresses an action, and necessarily im- 
plies an agent, and an object acted upon : as, to love ; " I 
love Penelope." 

A Verb Passive expresses a passion or a suffering, or 
the receiving of an action ; and necessarily implies an ob- 
ject acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon : 
as, to be loved ; " Penelope is loved by me." 

A Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor passion, but 
being, or a state of being: as, " I am, I sleep, I sit."* 

The verb active is also called transitive, because the action 
passes over to the object, or has an effect upon some other thing: 
as, " The tutor instructs his pupils ;" " I esteem the man." 

Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransitives, be- 
cause the effect is confined within the subject, and does not pass 
over to any object : as, " I sit, he lives, they sleep." 

Some of the verbs that are usually ranked among neuters, 
make a near approach to the nature of a verb active ; but they 
may be distinguished from it by their being intransitive : as, to 
run, to walk, to fly, &c. The rest are more obviously neuter 
and more clearly expressive of a middle state between action 
and passion : as, to stand, to lie, to sleep, &c. 

In English, many verbs are used both in an active and a neu- 
ter signification, the construction only determining of which 
kind they are : as, to flatten, signifying to make even or level, is 
a verb active ; but when it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is 
a verb neuter. 

* Verbs have been distinguished by some writers, into the following kinds. 

1st. Active-transitive, or those which denote an action that passed from the 
agent to some object : as, Cesar conquered Pompey. 

2d. Active-intransitive, or those which express that kind of action, which has 
no effect upon any thing beyond the agent himself: as, Cesar walked. 

3d. Passive, or those which express, not action, but passion, whether pleasing 
or painful : as Portia was loved ; Pompey was conquered. 

4th. jXeuter, or those which express an attribute that consists neither in ac- 
tion nor passion : as, Cesar stood. 

This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class of active-intran- 
sitive verbs were admitted, it would rather perplex than assist the learner : for 
the difference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intransitive, is 
easy and obvious; but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and in- 
transitively active, is not always clear. It is, indeed, often very difficult to b« 
ascertained. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may become a 
compound active verb. To smile is a neuter verb ; it cannot, 
therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be construed as 
a passive verb. We cannot say, she smiled him, or, he was smiled, 
But to smile on being a compound active verb, we properly say, she 
smiled on him ; he was smiled on by fortune in every undertaking. 

Auxiliary or helping Verbs, are those by the help of 
which the English verbs are principally conjugated. They 
are, do, be, have, shall, writ, may, can, with their variations ; 
and let and must, which have no variation * 

In our definition of the verb, as a part of speech which signi- 
fies to be, to do, or to suffer, &c. we have included every thing, 
either expressly or by necessary consequence, that is essential to 
its nature, and nothing that is not essential to it. This definition 
is warranted by the authority of Dr. Lowth, and of many other 
respectable writers on grammar. There are, however, some 
grammarians, who consider assertion as the essence of the verb. 
But, as the participle and the infinitive, if included in it, would 
prove insuperable objections to their scheme, they have, without 
hesitation, denied the former a place in the verb, and declared 
the latter to be merely an abstract noun. This appears to be 
going rather too far in support of an hypothesis. It seems to be 
incumbent on these grammarians, to reject also the imperative 
mood. What part of speech would they make the verbs in the 
following sentence ? " Depart instantly : improve your time : for- 
give us our sins." Will it be said, that the verbs in these phrases 
are assertions? 

In reply to these questions, it has been said, that " Depart in- 
stantly," is an expression equivalent to, " I desire you to depart 
instantly ;" and that as the latter phrase implies affirmation or 
assertion, so does the former. But, supposing the phrases to be 
exactly alike in sense, the reasoning is not conclusive. 1st. In 
the latter phrase, the only part implying affirmation, is, "I de- 
sire." The words " to depart," are in the infinitive mood, and 
contain no assertion : they affirm nothing. 2d. The position is 
not tenable, that " Equivalence in sense implies similarity in 
grammatical nature." It proves too much, and therefore nothing. 
This mode of reasoning would confound the acknowledged 
grammatical distinction of words. A pronoun, on this principle, 
may be proved to be a noun ; a noun, a verb ; an adverb, a noun 
and preposition ; the superlative degree, the comparative ; the 
imperative mood, the indicative ; the future tense, the present ; 
and so on : because they may respectively be resolved into simi- 
lar meanings. Thus, in the sentence, *' I desire you to depart," 
the words to depart, may be called a noun, because they are 
equivalent in sense to the noun departure, in the following sen- 

* Let, as a principal verb, has lettest and letteth ; but as a helping verb il 
admits of no variation. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tence, " I desire your departure." The words " depart instantly, ' 
may be proved to be, not the imperative mood with an adverb, 
but the indicative and infinitive, with a noun and preposition ; 
for they are equivalent to " I desire you to depart in an instant." 
The superlative degree in this sentence, " Of all acquirements 
virtue is the most valuable," may pass for the comparative, be 
cause it conveys the same sentiment as, " Virtue is more valu 
able than every other acquirement." 

We shall not pursue this subject any further, as the reader 
muit be satisfied, that only the word desire, in the equivalent 
sentence, implies affirmation ; and that one phrase may, in sense, 
be equivalent to another, though its grammatical nature is essen- 
tially different. 

To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense 

SECTION II. Of Number and Person. 
Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural 
as, " I run, we run," &c. 

In each number there are three persons ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I love. We love. 

Second Person. Thou lovest. Ye or you love. 

Third Person. He loves. They love. 

Thus the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to ex- 
press, or agree with, different persons of the same number: as, 
"I love, thou lovest; he loveth, or loves:" and also to express 
different numbers of the same person: as, " thou lovest, ye love ; 
he loveth, they love." In the plural number of the verb, there is 
no variation of ending to express the different persons ; and the 
verb, in the three persons plural, is the same as it is in the first 
person singular. Yet this scanty provision of terminations is 
sufficient for all the purposes of discourse, and no ambiguity 
arises from it: the verb being always attended, either with the 
noun expressing the subject acting or acted upon, or with the 
pronoun representing it. For this reason, the plural termina- 
tion in en, they loven, they weren, formerly in use, was laid aside as 
unnecessary, and has long been obsolete. 

SECTION III. Of Moods and Participles. 
Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing 
the manner in which the being, action, or passion, is re- 
presented. 

The nature of a mood may be more intelligibly explained to 
the scholar, by observing, that it consists in the change which the 
verb undergoes, to signify various intentions of the mind, and 
various modifications and circumstances of action : which ex- 
planation, if compared with the following account and uses of the 
different moods, will be found to agree with and illustrate them* 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

There are five moods of verbs, the indicative, the im- 
perative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the in- 
finitive. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a 
thing : as, " He loves, he is loved :" or it asks a question : 
as, " Does he love ?" " Is he loved ?" 

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhort- 
ing, entreating, or permitting ; as, " Depart thou ; mind ye ; 
let us stay; go in peace." 

Though this mood derives its name from its intimation of 
command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite nature, even 
in the humblest supplications of an inferior being to one who is 
infinitely his superior : as, " Give us this day our daily bread ; 
and forgive us our trespasses." 

The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, power, 
will, or obligation : as, " It may rain ; he may go or stay, I 
can ride ; he would walk ; they should learn." 

The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a condi- 
tion, motive, wish, supposition, &c. ; and is preceded by a 
conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by 
another verb : as, " 1 will respect him, though he chide 
me ;" " Were he good, he would be happy;" that is, " if 
he were good." — See note 8 to Rule 19. 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and 
unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or 
person ; as, " to act, to speak, to be feared." 
*" The participle is a certain form of the verb, and derives 
its name from its participating, not only of the properties 
of a verb, but also of those of an adjective : as, " I am de- 
sirous of knowing him ;" " admired and applauded, he be- 
came vain ;" " Having finished his work, he submitted it," 
&c. 

There are three participles, the Present or Active, the 
Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as, 
" loving, loved, having loved." — See p. 72. 

Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, we have 
represented the present participle, as active ; and the past, as 
passive : but they are not uniformly so : the present is sometimes 
passive; and the past is frequently active. Thus, " The youth 
was consuming by a slow malady;" "The Indian was burning 
by the cruelty of his enemies ;" appear to be instances of the 
present participle being used passively. "He has instructed me ;" 
t; I have gratefully repaid his kindness ;" are examples of the 

E 2 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

past participle being applied in an active sense. We may also 
observe, that the present participle is sometimes associated with 
the past and future tenses of the verb ; and thepast participle con- 
nected with the present and future tenses. — The most unexcep- 
tionable distinction which grammarians make between the parti- 
ciples, is, that the one points to the continuation of the action, 
passion, or state, denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the 
completion of it. Thus, the present participle signifies imperfect 
action, or action begun and not ended : as, " I am ivriting a 
letter." The past participle signifies action perfected, or finished: 
as, " I have itritten a letter ;" " The letter is written"* 

The participle is distinguished from the adjective, by the for- 
mer's expressing the idea of time, and the latter's denoting only 
a quality. The phrases, " loving to give as well as to receive," 
" moving in haste," " heated with liquor," contain participles 
giving the idea of time ; but the epithets contained in the ex- 
pressions, " a loving child," " a moving spectacle," " a heated ima- 
gination," mark simply the qualities referred to, without any re- 
gard to time ; and may properly be called participial adjectives. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they also 
signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in 
the same manner as verbs do ; and therefore should be compre- 
hended in the general name of verbs. That they are mere 
modes of the verb, is manifest, if our definition of a verb be ad- 
mitted : for they signify being, doing, or suffering, with the de- 
signation of time superadded. But if the essence of the verb be 
made to consist in affirmation or assertion, not only the partici 
pie will be excluded from its place in the verb, but the infinitive 
itself also ; which certain ancient grammarians of great autho- 
rity held to be alone the genuine verb, simple and unconnected 
with persons and circumstances. 

The following phrases, even when considered in themselves, 
show that participles include the idea of time : " The letter being 
written, or having been written;" " Charles being writing, having 
written, or having been writing.™ But when arranged in an entire 
sentence, which they must be to make a complete sense, they show 
it still more evidently : as, " Charles having written the letter, seal- 
ed and despatched it." — The participle does indeed associate with 
different tenses of the verb : as, " I am writing," u I was writing," 
" I shall be writing:" but this forms no just objection to its denoting 
time. If the time of it is often relative time, this circumstance, 
far from disproving, supports our position/)- See observations un- 
der Rule 1 3 of Syntax. 

Participles sometimes perform the office of substantives, and 

* When this participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called perfect; when 
it is Joined to the verb to be, or understood with it, it is denominated passive. 

f From the very nature of time, an action may be present now, it may have 
oeen present formerly, or it may he present at some future periods— yet whoever 
supposed, that the present of the indicative denotes no time? 

Encyclopcedia Britannica 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

Are used as such ; as in the following instances: "The bzgin- 
ning ;" "a good understanding;" "excellent writing;" "The 
chancellor's being attached to the king secured his crown :' 
" The general's having failed in this enterprise occasioned his 
disgrace ;" " John's having been ivriting a long time had wearied 
him" 

That the words in italics of the three latter examples, perform 
the office of substantives, and may be considered as such, will be 
evident, if we reflect, that the first of them has exactly the same 
meaning and construction as, " The chancellor's attachment to 
the king secured his crown ;" and that the other examples will 
bear a similar construction. The words, being attached, govern 
the word chancellor's in the possessive case, in the one instance, as 
clearly as attachment governs it in that case, in the other : and 
it is only substantives, or words and phrases which operate as 
substantives, that govern the genitive or possessive case. 

The following sentence is not precisely the same as the above, 
either in sense or construction, though, except the genitive case, 
the words are the same ; " The chancellor, being attached to the 
king, secured his crown." In the former, the words, being at- 
tached, form the nominative case to the verb, and are stated as 
the cause of the effect ; in the latter, they are not the nominative 
case, and make only a circumstance to chancellor, which is the 
proper nominative. It may not be improper to add another 
form of the sentence, by which the learner may better under- 
stand the peculiar nature and form of each of these modes of ex- 
pression : " The chancellor being attached to the king, his crown 
was secured. 1 " This constitutes what is properly called, the 
Case Absolute. 

SECTION IV. Remarks on the Potential Mood. 

That the Potential Mood should be separated from the subjunc- 
tive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion which are pro- 
duce! I by their being blended together, and from the distinct na- 
ture of the two moods ; the former of which may be expressed 
without any condition, supposition, &c. as will appear from the 
following instances : " They might have done better ;" " We may 
always act uprightly :" " He was generous, and would not take 
revenge ;" " We should resist the allurements of vice ;" " I coidd 
formerly indulge myself in things, of which I cannot now think 
but with pain." 

Some grammarians have supposed that the Potential Mood, as 
distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coincides with the Indi- 
cative. But as the latter " simply indicates or declares a thing," 
it is manifest that the former, which modifies the declaration, 
and introduces an idea materially distinct from it, must be con- 
siderably different. " I can walk," " I should walk," appear to 
be so essentially distinct from the simplicity of, " I walk," "I 
walked," as to warrant a correspondent distinction of moods* 
The Impel ative and Infinitive Moods which are allowed to re 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tain their rank, do not appear to contain such strong marks of 
discrimination from the Indicative, as are found in the Potential 
Mood. 

There are other writers on this suhject, who exclude the Po- 
tential Mood from their division, because it is formed, not by 
varying the principal verb, but by means of the auxiliary verbs 
may, can, might, could, would, &c. : but if we recollect, that moods 
are used " to signify various intentions of the mind, and various 
modifications and circumstances of action," we shall perceive 
that those auxiliaries, far from interfering with this design, do, in 
the clearest manner, support and exemplify it. On the reason 
alleged by these writers, the greater part of the Indicative Mood 
must also be excluded ; as but a small part of it is conjugated 
without auxiliaries. The Subjunctive too, will fare no better; 
since it so nearly resembles the Indicative, and is formed by 
means of conjunctions, expressed or understood, which do not 
more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than the 
auxiliaries do which are used to form the Potential Mood. 

Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent 
than we have assigned to them. They assert that the English 
language may be said, without any great impropriety, to have as 
many moods as it has auxiliary verbs ; and they allege, in sup- 
port of their opinion, that the compound expression which they 
help to form, point out those various dispositions and actions, 
which, in other languages, are expressed by moods. This would 
be to multiply the moods without advantage. It is, however, 
certain, that the conjugation or variation of verbs, in the Eng- 
lish language, is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxilia- 
ries. We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circum- 
stance ; and do that by their assistance, which has been done in 
the learned languages, (a few instances to the contrary except- 
ed,) in another manner, namely, by varying the form of the verb 
itself. At the same time, it is necessary to set proper bounds to 
this business, so as not to occasion obscurity and perplexity, 
when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, there- 
fore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and in- 
troducing moods Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, 
Precative, &c. we have exhibited such only as are obviously dis- 
tinct ; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold and dis- 
play the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, 
and not more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for 
which moods were introduced. 

From grammarians who form their ideas, and make their de 
cisions, respecting this part of English Grammar on the princi- 
ples and construction of languages, which in these points, do not 
suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from 
it, we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not 
very perspicuous nor perfectly consistent, and which will tend 
more to perplex than inform the earner. See pages 76 — 78 
94—96— 99— 102. 182—184 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

SECTION V. Of the Tenses. 

Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to ad- 
mit only of the present, past, and future ; but to mark it 
more accurately, it is made to consist of six variations, via 
the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect 
and the first and second future tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event, as 
passing at the time in which it is mentioned : as, " I rule ; 
1 am ruled ; I think; I fear." 

The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. 
at present existing : as, "He is an able man ;" "she is an amia- 
ble woman." It is also used in speaking of actions continued, 
with occasional intermissions, to the present time : as, " He fre- 
quently rides ;" " He walks out every morning ;" "He goes into 
the country every summer." We sometimes apply this tense 
even to persons Jong since dead : as, " Seneca reasons and mo- 
ralizes well ;" "Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words, when, before, after, 
as soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out the relative time 
of a future action : as, " When he arrives he will hear the news ;" 
" He will hear the news before he arrives, or as soon as he ar- 
rives, or, at farthest, soon after he arrives ;" " The more she im- 
proves, the more amiable she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes sub- 
stituted for the imperfect tense : as, " He enters the territory of 
the peaceable inhabitants ; he fights and conquers, takes an im- 
mense booty, which he divides amongst his soldiers, and returns 
home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event, 
either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a 
certain time past : as, " I loved her for her modesty and 
virtue ;" " They were travelling post when he met them." 

The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but 
also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, " I have 
finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was re- 
commended to me." 

In the former example, it is signified that the finishing of the 
letter, though past, was at a period immediately, or very nearly, 
preceding the present time. In the latter instance, it is uncer- 
tain whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a 
long or short time before. The meaning is, " I have seen him 
some time in the course of a period which includes, or comes to, 
the present time." When the particular time of any occur- 
rence is specified, as prior to the present time, this tense is not 
used : for it would be improper to say, " I have seen him yester- 
day ;" or, " I have finished my work last week." In. these cases 
3* 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the imperfect is necessary: as, "I saw him yesterday;" "I 
finished my work last week." But when we speak indefinitely 
of any thing past, as happening or not happening in the day, 
year, or age, in which we mention it, the perfect must be em- 
ployed : as, " I have been there this morning ;" " I have travelled 
much this year:" "We have escaped many dangers through 
life." In referring, however, to such a division of the day as is 
past before the time of our speaking, we use the imperfect: as, 
" They came home early this morning ;" " He ivas with them at 
three o'clock this afternoon." 

The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a 
thing that is past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner, 
that there is still actually remaining some part of the time to 
slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been done ; where- 
as the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a man- 
ner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. 
If we speak of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have 
made great discoveries in the present century:" but if we speak 
of the last century, we say, "Philosophers wade great disco- 
veries in the last century." " He has been much afflicted this 
year ;" " I have this week read the king's proclamation ;" " I have 
heard great news this morning :" in these instances, " He has 
been" " I have read" and "heard" denite things that are past; 
but they occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day ; and still 
there remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense maybe applied wherever the ac- 
tion is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, 
either of the author, or of the work, though it may have been 
performed many centuries ago ; but if neither the author nor the 
work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, " Cicero 
has written orations ;" but we cannot say, Cicero has ivritten 
poems ;" because the orations are in being, but the poems are 
lost. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They have 
in all ages claimed great powers ;" because the general order of 
the priesthood still exists: but if we speak of the Druids, as any 
particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we cannot 
use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid priests have claimed 
great powers," but must say, " The Druid priests claimed great 
powers ;" because that order is now totally extinct. See Pick- 
bourn on the English Verb. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing, not only as 
past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified 
in the sentence : as, "I had finished my letter before he ar- 
rived." 

The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to 
come, either with or without respect to the precise time : 
as, " The sun will rise to-morrow ;" " I shall see them again. 

The Second Future intimates that the action will be fully 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

accomplished, at or before the time of another future ac- 
tion or event : as, " I shall have dined at one o'clock ;" 
" The two houses will have finished their business, when the 
king comes to prorogue them."* 

It is to be observed, that in the subjunctive mood, the event 
being spoken of under a condition or supposition, or in the form 
of a wish, and therefore as doubtful and contingent, the verb 
itself in the present, and the auxiliary both of the present and 
past imperfect times, often carry with them somewhat of a 
future sense : as, "If he come to-morrow, I may speak to him ;" 
" If he should, or would come to-morrow, 1 might, would, could, 
or should speak to him." Observe also, that the auxiliary should 
and would, in the imperfect times, are used to express the present 
and future as well as the past : as, " It is my desire, that he should, 
or would, come now, or to-morrow ;" as well as, " It was my 
desire, that he should or would come yesterday." So that in 
this mood the precise time of the verb is very much determined 
by the nature and drift of the sentence, 
r— — The present, past, and future tenses, may be used either defi- 
nitely or indefinitely, both with respect to time and action. When 
they denote customs or habits, and not individual acts, they are 
applied indefinitely : as, " Virtue promotes happiness ;" " The 
old Romans governed by benefits more than by fear ;" " I shall 
hereafter employ my time more usefully." In these examples, 
the words, promotes, governed, and shall employ, are used indefi- 
nitely, both in regard to action and time ; for they are not con- 
fined to individual actions, nor to any precise points of present, 
past, or future time. When they are applied to signify particular 
actions, and to ascertain the precise points of time to which they 
are confined, they are used definitely ; as in the following in- 
stances. " My brother is writing;" "He built the house last 
summer, but did not inhabit it till yesterday." " He will write 
.another letter to-morrow." 

The different tenses also represent an action as complete or 
perfect, or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, " I am 
writing," "I was writing," "I shall be writing," imperfect, 
unfinished actions are signified. But the following examples, 
" I wrote," " I have written," " I had written," " I shall have 
written," all denote complete perfect action. 

From the preceding representation of the different tenses, it 
appears, that each of them has its distinct ana peculiar province ; 
and that though some of them may sometimes be used promis- 
cuously, or substituted one for another, in cases where great 
accuracy is not required, yet there is a real and essential differ- 
ence in their meaning. — It is also evident, that the English 
language contains the six tenses which we have enumerated. 
Grammarians who limit the number to two, or at most to three, 
namely, the present, the imperfect, and the future, do not reflect 

* See an account of the simple and compound tenses, at page 71. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that the English verb is mostly composed of principal and aux- 
iliary ; and that these several parts constitute one verb. Either 
the English language has no regular future tense, or its future 
is composed of the auxiliary and the principal verb. If the 
latter be admitted, then the auxiliary and principal united, con- 
stitute a tense, in one instance ; and, from reason and analogy, 
may doubtless do so, in others, in which minuter divisions of 
time are necessary, or"useful. What reason can be assigned for 
not considering this case as other cases, in which a whole is re- 
garded as composed of several parts, or of principal and adjuncts? 
There is nothing heterogeneous in the parts : and precedent, 
analogy, utility, and even necessity, authorize the union. 

In support of this opinion, we have the authority of eminent 
grammarians ; in particular, that of Dr. Beattie. " Some 
writers," says the doctor, " will not allow any thing to be a tense, 
but what in one inflected word, expresses an affirmation with 
time; for that those parts "of the verb are not properly called 
tenses, which assume that appearance, by means of auxiliary 
words. At this rate, we should have, in English, two tenses 
only, the present and the past in the active verb, and in the 
passive no tenses at all. But this is a needless nicety ; and, if 
adopted, would introduce confusion into the grammatical art. 
If amaveram be a tense, why should^ not amatus fueramf If / 
heard be a tense, I did hear, I have heard* and I shall hear, must 
be equally entitled to that appellation." 

The proper form of a tense?, 'in the Greek and Latin tongues, 
is certainly that which it has in the grammars of those languages. 
But in the Greek and Latin grammars, we uniformly find, that 
some of the tenses are formed by variations of the principal 
verb ; and others, by the addition of a helping verb. It is there- 
fore, indisputable, that the principal verb, or rather its participle, 
and an auxiliary, constitute a regular tense in the Greek and 
Latin languages. This point being established, we may, doubt' 
less, apply it to English verbs ; and extend the principle as fai 
as convenience, and the idiom of our language require. 

If it should be said, that, on the same ground that a participle 
and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense, and the verb is to be 
conjugated accordingly, the English noun and pronoun ought to 
be declined at large, with articles and prepositions ; we must 
object to the inference. Such a mode of declension is not 
adapted to our language. This we think has been already 
proved."* It is also confessedly inapplicable to the learned lan- 
guages. Where then is the grammatical inconsistency, or the 
want of conformity to the principles of analogy, in making some 
tenses of the English verb to consist of principal and auxiliary ; 
and the cases of English nouns, chiefly in their termination? 
The argument from analogy, instead of militating against us, 
appears to confirm and establish our position. See pages 55 — 
56. -72— 73.— 74— 76.— 139— 140 . 

* See page 40. 



ETYMOLOGY. 6t 

We shall close these remarks on the tenses, with a few ob- 
servations extracted from the Encyclopaedia Britannjca. 
They are worth the student's attention, as a part of them applies, 
not only to our views of the tenses, but to many other parts of 
the work. — " Harris (by way of hypothesis) has enumerated no 
fewer than twelve tenses. Of this enumeration we can by no 
means approve : for, without entering into a minute examina- 
tion of it, nothing can be more obvious, than that his inceptive 
present, " I am going to write," is a future tense ; and his com- 
pletive present, " I have written," a past tense. But, as was be- 
fore observed of the classification of words, we cannot help 
being of opinion, that, to take the tenses as they are commonly 
received, and endeavour to ascertain their nature and their differ- 
ences, is a much more useful exercise, as well as more proper for 
a work of this kind, than to raise, as might easily be raised, new 
theories on the subject."* 



. > *> 






SECTION VI. The Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs 
to have and to be. 

The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, 
and tenses. 

The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the active 
voice ; and that of a passive verb, the passive voice. 

The auxiliary and active verb to have, is conjugated in 
the following manner. 

TO HAVE. 

Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Pers. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Pers. Thou hast. 2. Ye or you have. 

3. Pers. He, she, or it ) 3 Th fa 
hath or has. ^ J 

Imperfect Tense.* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had. 1. We had. 

2. Thou hadst. 2. Ye or you had. 

3. He, &c. had. 3. They had. 

* The following criticism affords an additional support to ths author's system 
of the Tenses, &c. 

" Under the head of Etymology, the author of this grammar judiciously ad- 
heres to the natural simplicity of the English language, without embarrassing the 
learner with distinctions peculiar to the Latin tongue. The difficult subject of 
the Tenses,, is clearly explained; and with less encumbrance of technical 
phraseology, than in most other grammars." Analytical Review. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tensed 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have had, 1. We have had 

2. Thou hast nad. 2. Ye or you have had. 

3. He has had. 3. They have had. 

Pluperfect Tense.* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had had. 1. We had had. 

2. Thou hadst had 2. Ye or you had had. 

3. He had had. 3. They had had. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Ye or you shall or will have. 

3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. "Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. 

3. He will have had. 3. They will have had. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 

2. Have, or have thou, or do 2. Have, or have ye, or do ye or 

thou have. you have. 

3. Let him have. 3. Let them have.f 

The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three persons. 
The command is always addressed to the second person, not to 
the first or third. For when we say, " Let me have," " Let 
him, or let them have," the meaning and construction are, do 
thou, or do ye, let me, him, or them have. In philosophical 
strictness, both number and person might be entirely exclu- 
ded from every verb. They are, in fact, the properties of sub- 
stantives, not a part of the essence of a verb. Even the name 
of 'he imperative mood, does not always correspond to its 
nature : for it sometimes petitions as well aa commands. But, 
wnh respect to all these points, the practice of our gramma- 
rians is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to the languages, 

* The terms which we have adopted, to designate the three past tenses, may 
not be exactly significant of their nature and distinctions. But as they are used 
by grammarians in general, and have an established authority; and, especially, 
as the meaning attached to each of them, and their different significations, have 
been carefully explained ; we presume that no solid objection can be made to 
the use of terms so generally approved, and so explicitly defined. See pages 61 
and 62. We are supported in these sentiments, by the authority of Dr. John- 
son. Srce the first note in his " Grammar of the English Tongue," prefixed to 
his dictionary. If, however, any teachers should think it warrantable to change 
the established names, they cannot perhaps find any more appropriate, than the 
terms first preterit, second preterit, and third preterit. — See the Octavo Grammar. 

f If such sentences should be rigorously examined, the Imperative will ap- 
pear to consist merely in the word let. See Parsing, p. 154. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

ancient and modern, which our youth have to study, that it 
would be an unwarrantable degrle of innovation, to deviate 
from the established terms and arrangements. See the advertise 
merit at the end of the Introduction, page 6 ; and the quotation 
from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, page 61. 
Potential Mood. 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

t I may or can have. 1. We may or can have. 

2 Thou mayst or canst have. 2. Ye or you may or can have 

8. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

J. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have. should have. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,would, 
wouldst, or shouldst have. or should have. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should have. should have. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
had. had. 

3. He may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, •) 
should have had. should have had. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 y . h u M 
wouldst, or shouldst have or ^y hav s e h ' ad> . 

had. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or shoulu have had. should have had.* 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou have.f 2. If ye or you have. 

3. If he have.f 3. If they have. 

The remaining tenses of .the subjunctive mood, are, in every 
respect, similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative 

* Shall and will, when they denote inclination, resolution, promise, may be 
considered, as well as their relations should and would, as belonging tc the po- 
tential mood. But as they generally signify futurity, they have been appio- 
priated, as helping verbs, to the formation of the future tentes of the indicative 
and subjunctive moods 

■{• Grammarians, in general, conjugate the present of the auxiliary, in this 
manner. But we presume that this is the form of tbe verb, considered as a 
principal, not as an auxiliary verb See page 138. IS'Jte 5. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

mood ;* with the addition to the verb, of a conjunction, expressed 
or implied, denoting a condition, motivo, wish, supposition, &c 
It will be proper to direct the learner to repeat all the tenses of 
this mood, with a conjunction prefixed to each of them. See* 
on this subject, the observations at page 74 ; and the notes on the 
nineteenth rule of syntax. 

Infinitive Mood, 
present. To have. perfect. To have had. 

Participles. 
present or active, Having. 
perfect, Had. 

compound perfect, Having had. 

As the subjunctive mood, in English, has no variation, in th* 
form of the verb, from the indicative, (except in the present tense, 
and the second future tense, of verbs generally, and the present 
and imperfect tenses of the verb to be,) it would be superfluous 
to conjugate it in this work, through every tense. But all the 
other moods and tenses of the verbs, both in the active and 
passive voices, are conjugated at large, that the learners may 
have no doubts or misapprehensions respecting their particular 
forms. They to whom the subject of grammar is entirely new, 
and young persons especially, are much more readily and effect- 
ually instructed, by seeing the parts of a subject so essential as 
the verb, unfolded and spread before them, in all their varieties, 
than by being generally and cursorily informed of the manner 
in which they may be exhibited. The time employed by the 
scholars, in consequence of this display of the verbs, is of small 
moment, compared with the advantages which they will proba- 
bly derive from the plan. 

It may not, however, be generally proper for young persons 
beginning the study of grammar, to commit to memory all the 
tenses of the verbs. If the simple tenses, namely, the present 
and the imperfect, together with the first future tense, should, in 
the first instance, be committed to memory, and the rest care- 
fully perused and explained, the business will not be tedious to 
the scholars, and their progress will be rendered more obvious 
and pleasing. The general view of the subject, thus acquired and 
Impressed, may afterward be extended with ease and advantage. 

It appears to be proper, for the information of the learners, to 
make a few observations in this place, on some of the tenses, &c. 
The first is, that, in the potential mood, some grammarians con- 
found the present with the imperfect tense ; and the perfect with 
the pluperfect. But that they are really distinct, and have an 
appropriate reference to time, correspondent to the definitions 
of those ten ses, will appear from a few examples : " I wished 

* Except that the second and third persons, singular and plural, of the yecond 
future tense, require the auxiliary shall, shall, instead of wilt, will. Thus. " He 
will hav«* -ompleted the work by midsummer," - he indicative form, bit ! *ie 
subjuncti 4 is, " If he shall have completed the Work by midsummer. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

him to stay, but he would not ;" " I could not accomplish the 
business in time ;" " It was my direction that he should submit ;" 
" He was ill, but I thought he might live ;" " I may have mis- 
understood him ;" " He cannot have deceived me ;" " He might have 
finished the work sooner, but he could not have done it better.-' — 
It must, however, be admitted, that, on some occasions, the aux- 
iliaries might, could, would, and should, refer also to present and 
to future time. See page 59. 

The next remark is, that the auxiliary will, in the first person 
singular and plural of the second future tense ; and the auxiliary 
shall, in the second and third persons of that tense, in the indica- 
tive mood, appear to he incorrectly applied. The impropriety 
of such associations may be inferred from a few examples : " I 
will have had previous notice, whenever the event happens;" 
" Thou shalt have served thy apprenticeship before the end of 
the year;" "He shall have completed his business when the 
messenger arrives." " I shall have had ; thou wilt have served ; 
he will have completed," &c. would have been correct and ap- 
plicable. The peculiar import of these auxiliaries, as explained 
in page 69, under section 7, seems to account for their impro- 
priety in the applications just mentioned. 

Some writers on grammar object to the propriety of admitting 
the second future, in both the indicative and subjunctive moods : 
but that this tense is applicable to both moods, will be manifest 
from the following examples; "John will have earned his wages 
the next new-year's day," is a simple declaration, and therefore 
in the indicative mood : " If he shall have finished his work when 
the bell rings, he will be entitled to the reward," is conditional 
and contingent, and is therefore in the subjunctive mood. 

We shall conclude these detached observations, with one re- 
mark which may be useful to the young scholar, namely, that as 
the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, by the ex- 
pression of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. being su- 
peradded to it ; so the potential mood may, in like manner, be 
turned into the subjunctive ; as will be seen in the following 
examples ; "If I could deceive him, I should abhor it ;" " Though 
he should increase in wealth, he would not be charitable ;" " Even 
in prosperity he would gain no esteem, unless he should conduct 
himself better." v 

The auxiliary and neuter verb To he, is conjugated %s 
follows ; 

TO BE. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art. 2. Ye or you are. 

3. He, she, or it is 3. They are. 

F2 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was. J- We were. 

2. Thou wast. 2. Ye or you were, 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. Ye or you have been. 

3. He hath or has been. 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. Ye or you had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Ye or you shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 

2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 

3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be. 

3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
should be. should be. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,would, 
wouldst, or shouldst be. or should be. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should be. should be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. P'ural. 

1. I may or can have been. 1. We may or can have been. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
been. been. 

3. He may or can have been. 3. They may oHcan have been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or 1, We might, could, would, 01 
should have been. should have been. 

. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,would, 

wouldst, or shouldst have or should have been, 

been. 

. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should have been. should have been. 

Subjunctive Moon. 





Present Tense. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. If lbe. 


1. If we be. 


2. If thou be. 


2. If ye or you be. 


3, If he be. 


3. If they be. 




Imperfect Tense. 


Singular; 


Plural. 


1. If I were. 


1. Tf we were. 


2. If thou wert. 


2. If ye or you were. 


3. If he were. 


3. If they were. 


The remaining 


tenses of this mood are, in general, similar to 


the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pages 64, 


73, 74, and the notes under the nineteenth rule of Syntax. 




Infinitive Mood. 



Present Tense. To be* Perfect To have been. 

Participles. 
Present. Being. Perfect Been. 

Compound Perfect Having been. 

SECTION VII. The Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their simple 
form ; with observations on their peculiar nature and force. 
The learner will perceive that the preceding auxiliary verbs, 
to have and to be, could not be conjugated through all the moods 
and tenses, without the help of other auxiliary verbs ; namely, 
may, can, will, shall, and their variations. That auxiliary verbs, 
in their simple state, and unassisted by others, are of a very 
limited extent ; and that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which 
they afford in conjugating the principal verbs ; will clearly ap- 
pear to the scholar, by a distinct conjugation of each of them, 
uncombined with any other. They are exhibited for his inspec- 
tion ; not to be committed to memory 
TO HAVE. 
Present Tense. 
Sing. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He hath or has. 

Plur. 1 We have. 2. Ye or you have. 3. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. 1 1 had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. 

Plur. 1. We had. 2. Ye or you had. 3. They had. 
Perfect I have had &o Pluperfect. I had had, &c 



68 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Sing. 1. 

Pav. 1. 

5? rig*. 1. 

PZwr. 1. 



Sing- 1 

Fter. 1 

Swig*. 1. 

PZwr. 1. 



iSing*. 1. 

PZwr. 1. 

jSmg*- I. 

Plur. 1. 



<Sfo?g\ 1. 
PZwr. 1. 

Sing-. 1. 
PZwr. 1. 



Sing 1. 

PZwr. 1. 

Sfoig*. 1. 

PZwr. 1. 



Sine?. 1, 
Plur. 1. 



I am. 
We are. 

I was. 
We wen* 

Present. 



Participles. 
Present. Having. Perfect 

TO BE. 
Present Tense. 
2. Thou art. 
2. Ye or you are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou wast. 
2. Ye or you were. 
Participles. 
Being. Perfect 

SHALL. 
Present Tense. 
2. Thou shalt. 
2. Ye or you shall. 
Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou shouldst. 
2. Ye or you should 
WILL. 
Present Tense. 
2. Thou wilt. 
2. Ye or you will. 
Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou wouldst. 



I shall* 
We shall 

I should. 
We should. 



3. 
3. 

3. 
3. 



3. 
3. 

3. 
3. 



Had. 



He is. 
They are. 

He was. 
They were. 

Been. 



He shall. 
They shall. 

He should.^ 
They should. 



I will. 
We will. 

I would. 
We would. 



3. He will. 
3. They will. 



3. He would. 
Ye or you would. 3. They would 

MAY. 



I may. 
We may. 

I might. 
We might, 



I can. 
W r e can. 

I could. 
We could. 



I do. 
We do. 



Present Tense. 
2. Thou mayst. 
2. Ye or you may- 

Imperfect Tense. 

Thou mightst. 

Ye or you might. 

CAN. 

Present Tense. 

Thou canst. 

Ye or you can. 

Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou couldst. 
2. Ye or you could. 

TO DO. 

Present Tense. 
2. Thou dost. 
2. Ye or you do. 



2. 
2. 



2. 
2. 



3. He may. 
3. They may. 

3. He might. 
3. They might. 



3. He can. 
3. They can. 

3. He could. 
3. They could. 



3. He doth or does 
3. They do. 



* Shall is here properly used in the present tense, having the same analogy 
o should that can has to could, may to might, and will to would. 



ETYMOLOGY 





Imperfect Tense. 


Sing 1. I did. 


2. Thou didst. 3. He did. 


Plur. 1. We did. 


2. Ye or you did. 3. They did. 



Participles. 
Present Doing. Perfect. Done. 

The verbs have, be, will, and do, when they are unconnected 
with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxilia- 
ries, but principal verbs : as, " We have enough ;" u I am grateful ;" 
" He wills it to be so ;" " They do as they please." In this view, 
they also have their auxiliaries : as, " I shall have enough ;" " I 
will be grateful," &c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from 
the following account of them. 

Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with great- 
er energy and positiveness : as, " I do speak truth ;" " I did 
respect him ;" "Here am I, for thou didst call me." They are 
of great use in negative sentences : as, " I do not fear ;" " I did 
not write."*" They are almost universally employed in asking 
questions: as, " Does he learn?" "Did he not write?" They 
sometimes also supply the place of another verb, and make the 
repetition of it in the same, or a subsequent sentence, unneces- 
sary : as, " You attend not to your studies as he does;" (i. e. as he 
attends, &c.) " I shall come if I can ; but if I do not, please to ex- 
cuse me ;" (i. e. if I come not.) 

Let not only expresses permission, but entreating, exhorting, 
commanding: as, "Let us know the truth ;" "Let me die the 
death of the righteous ;" " Let not thy heart be too much elated 
with success;" "Let thy inclination submit to thy duty.' 

May and might express the possibility or liberty of doing a 
thing ; can and could, the power : as, " It may rain ;" " I may 
write or read ;" " He might have improved more than he has ;" 
" He can write much better than he could last year." 

Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessi- 
ty ; as, " We must speak the truth whenever we do speak, and 
we must not prevaricate." 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolu- 
tion and promising ;in the second and third person, only foretells: 
as, " I will reward the good, and will punish the wicked ;" "We 
will remember benefits, and be grateful ;" " Thou wilt, or he 
will, repent of that folly ;" "You or they will have a pleasant 
walk." 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in 
the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens 
as, " I shall go abroad ;" " We shall dine at home ;" " Thou shalt, 
or you shall, inherit the land :" "Ye shall do justice, and love 
mercy;" "They shall account for their misconduct." The fol- 
lowing passage is not translated according to the distinct and 
proper meanings of the words shall and will: "Surely goodness 
and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



, 



dwell in the house of the Lord for ever ;" it ought to be, " Wik 
follow me," and " I shall dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is said, 
fell into the Thames, and cried out; "I will be drowned, nobody 
shall help me ;" made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs will and 
shall, must be understood of explicative sentences; for when the 
sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, for the most part, 
takes place : thus, "I shall go ; you will go ;" express event only: 
out, " will you go ?" imports intention ; and, "shalll go?" refers 
to the will of another. But, " He shall go," and " shall he go ?" 
both imply will ; expressing or referring to a command. 

When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meanin 
of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some alteration ; as the 
learners will readily perceive by a few examples: "He shall pro- 
ceed" " If he shall proceed ;" " You shall consent," " If you shall 
consent." These auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged, in the 
indicative and subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning of 
the auxiliary : as, " He will not return," " If he shall not return ;* 
"He shall not return," " If he will not return." 

Would, primarily denotes inclination of will ; and should, obli- 
gation : but they both vary their import, and are often used to 
express simple event. 

SECTION VIII. The Conjugation of Regular Verbs. 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs Active are called Regular, when they form their 
imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect 
participle, by adding to the verb ed, or d only when the ve-kb 
ends in e : as. 

Present. Imperfect, Perf. Particip. 

I favour. I favoured. Favoured. 

I love. I loved. Loved. 

A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in the following 
manner. 

TO LOVE. 
Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love.* 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. Ye or you love. 

3. He she, or it, loveth,? g Th loye# 
or loves. ) J 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved. i. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. Ye or you loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 



* fn the present and imperfect tenses, we use a different form of the verb, 
when we mean to express energy and positiveness: as, " J do l<?ve; thou dos 
iove , he does love ; I did love thou didst love ; he did love." 



ETYMOLOGY, Tl 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. Ye or you have lovecL 

3. He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. J. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 
Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the 

principal, without an auxiliary verb : as, " I love, I loved.' 1 The 
compound tenses are such as cannot be formed without an aux- 
iliary verb : as, " I have loved ; I had loved ; I shall or will love ; 
I may love ; I may he loved ; I may have been loved ;" &c. These 
compounds are, however, to be considered as only different forms 
of the same verb. 

Imperative Mood 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


Let me love. 1. 


Let us love. 


2. 


Love, or love thou, or 2. 


Love, or love ye or you, or 




do thou love. 


do ye love. 


a 


Let him love. 3. 


Let them love. 



Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 

2. Thou may st or canst love. 2. Ye or you may or can love. 

3. He may or can love. 3. They may or can love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, eould, would, or 
should love. should love. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,would, 
wouldst, or shouldst love. or should love. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, o? 
or should love. should love. 



73 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tense, 
Singniar. Plural. 

1. I may or can have loved. 1. We may or can have loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
loved. loved. 

3. He may or can have loved. 3. They may or can have loved 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
should have loved. should have loved. 

wouldst, or snouldst nave fa w haye j ^ 

loved. 
3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should have loved. should have loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

The remaining tenses of this mood, are, in general, similar 
to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See page 
64, and page 73. 

It may be of use to the scholar, to remark, in this place, that 
though only the conjunction if is affixed to the verb, any other 
conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood, may, with equal 
propriety, be occasionally annexed. The instance given is suffi- 
cient to explain the subject : more would be tedious, and tend to 
embarrass the learner. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present. To love. Perfect. To have lovod. 

Participles. 

Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having loved. 

The active verb may be conjugated differently, by adding its 
present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through 
all its moods and tenses ; as, instead of " I teach, thou teachest, 
he teaches," &c. ; we may say, " I am teaching, thou art teach- 
ing, he is teaching," &c. : and instead of" I taught," &c. " I was 
teaching," &c. and so on, through all the variations of the aux-r 
iliary. This mode of conjugation has, on particular occasions, 
a peculiar propriety ; and contributes to the harmony and pre- 
cision of the language. These forms of expression are adapted 
to particular acts, not to general habits, or affections of the mind. 
They are very frequently applied to neuter verbs ; as, " I am 
musing ; he is sleeping."* 3 * 

* As the participle, in this mode of conjugation, performs the office of a verb, 
through all the moods and tenses; and as it implies the idea of time, and governs 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

Some grammarians apply, what is called the conjunctive termi- 
nation, to the persons of the principal verb, and to its auxiliaries, 
through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood. But this is cer- 
tainly contrary to the practice of good writers. Johnson ap- 
plies this termination to the present and perfect tenses only. 
Lowth restricts it entirely to the present tense ; and Priestley 
confines it to the present and imperfect tenses. This difference 
of opinion amongst grammarians of such eminence, may have 
contributed to that diversity of practice, so observable in the 
use of the subjunctive mood. Uniformity in this point is highly 
desirable. It would materially assist both teachers and learn- 
ers ; and would constitute a considerable improvement in our 
language. On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. Lowth ; 
and conceive we are fully warranted by his authority, and that 
of the most correct and elegant writers, in limiting the con- 
junctive termination of the principal verb, to the second and 
third person singular of the present tense. 

Grammarians have not only differed in opinion, respecting the 
extent and variations of the subjunctive mood ; but a few of them 
have even doubted the existence of such a mood in the Eng- 
lish language. These writers assert, that the verb has no vari- 
ation from the indicative ; and that a conjunction added to the 
verb, gives it no title to become a distinct mood ; or, at most, 
no better than it would have, if any other particle were joined 
to it. To these observations it may be replied ; 1st. It is evident, 
on inspection, that, in the subjunctive mood, the present tense of 
the principal verbs, the present and imperfect tenses of the verb 
to be, and the second and third persons, in both numbers, of the 
second future tense of all verbs ;* require a variation from the 
forms which those tenses have in the indicative mood. So much 
difference in the form of the verb, would warrant a correspondent 
distinction of mood, though the remaining parts of the subjunctive 
were, in all respects, similar to those of the indicative. In other 
languages, a principle of this nature has been admitted, both in 
the conjugation of verbs, and the declension of nouns. 2d. There 
appears to be as much propriety, in giving a conjunction the 
power of assisting to form the subjunctive mood, as there is in 
allowing the particle to to have an effect in the formation of the 
infinitive mood.f 3d. A conjunction added to the verb, shows 
the manner of being, doing, or suffering, which other particles 
cannot show : they do not coalesce with the verb, and modify it 
as conjunctions do. 4th. It maybe said, " If contingency consti- 

the objective case of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do : is 
it not manifest, that it is a species or form of the verb, and that it cannot be 
properly considered as a distinct part of speech ? 

* We think it has been proved, that the auxiliary is a constituent part of the 
verb to which it relates : that the principal and its auxiliary form but one verb. 

f Conjunctions have an influence on the mood of the following verb. 

Dr. Beat tie. 

Conjunctions have sometimes a government of moods. Dr. Lowth. 

4 G 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tutes the subjunctive mood, then it is the sense of a phrase, and 4 
not a conjunction, that determines this mood." But a little re- 
flection will show, that the contingent sense lies in the meaning 
and force of the conjunction, expressed or understood. 

This subject maybe farther illustrated, by the following obser- 
vations. — Moods have a foundation in nature. They show what is 
certain ; what is possible ; what is conditional ; what is command- 
ed. They express also other conceptions and volitions ; all signify- 
ing the manner of being, doing, or suffering. But as it would tend 
to obscure, rather than elucidate the subject, if the moods were 
particularly enumerated, grammarians have very properly given 
them such combinations and arrangements, as serve to explain 
the nature of this part of language, and to render the knowledge 
of it easily attainable. 

The grammars of some languages contain a greater number 
of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in different forms. 
The Greek and Roman tongues denote them, by particular vari- 
ations in the verb itself. This form, however, was the effect of 
ingenuity and improvement : it is not essential to the nature of 
the subject. The moods may be as effectually designated by a 
plurality of words, as by a change in the appearance of a single 
word ; because the same ideas are denoted, and the same ends 
accomplished, by either manner of expression. 

On this ground, the moods of the English verb, as well as the 
tenses, are, with great propriety, formed partly by the principal 
verb itself, and partly by the assistance which that verb derives 
from other words. For further observations, relative to the 
views and sentiments here advanced, see pages 55, 56. 59, 60. 
77, 78—139—140. 

— */ f , PASSIVE. 

Verbs Passive are called regular, when they form their 
perfect participle by the addition oi d or ed, to the verb : 
as, from the verb " To love," is formed the passive, " I am 
loved, I was loved, I shall be loved," &c. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect parti- 
ciple to the auxiliary to be, through all its changes of number, 
person, mood, and tense, in the following manner. 

TO BE LOVED. 

f Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. Ye or you are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. Ye or you were loved 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

J. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. Ye or you have been loved. 

3. He hath or has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Ye or you had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. Ye or you shall or will be love I 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. Ye or you will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be loved. 1, Let us be loved. 

2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do ye be 
be loved. loved. 

3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved. 

Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 
v Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be loved. 1. We may or can be loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be loved. 2. Ye or you may or can be loved. 

3. He may or can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
should be loved. should be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,would, 
wouldst, or shouldst be loved. or should be loved. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should be loved. should be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have been 1. We may or can have been 
loved. loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
been loved. been loved. 

3. He may or can have been 3. They may or can have been 
igved. loved. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 01 
should have been loved. should have been loved. 

2 Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye oryou might, could,would, 
wouldst. or shouldst have or should have been loved, 
been loved. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, o; 
or should have been loved. should have been loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I be loved. 
If thou be loved. 
If he be loved. 


Plural. 

1. If we be loved. 

2. If ye or you be loved. 

3. If they be loved. 


I. 

2. 

3. 


Impei feet 
Singular. 

I were loved. 1. 
If thou wert loved. 2. 
If he were loved. 3. 


Tense. 
Plural. 
If we were loved. 
If ye or you were loved, 
If they were loved. 



The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, similar to 
the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pages 
64, 73, and the notes under the nineteenth rule of Syntax. 
Infinitive Mood. 
Present Tense. Perfect. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 

Participles. 

Present. Being loved. 

Perfect or Passive. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 

When an auxiliary is joined to the participle of the principal 
verb, the auxiliary goes through all the variations of r»^*son and 
number, and the participle itself continues invariably the same. 
When there are two or more auxiliaries joined tu the participle, 
the first of them only is varied according to person and number. 
The auxiliary must admits of no variation. 

The neuter verb is conjugated like the active; but as it par- 
takes somewhat of the nature of the passive, it admits, in many 
instances, of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signifi- 
cation : as, " I am arrived ;" " I was gone ;" " I am grown." 
The auxiliary verb, am. ivas, in this case, precisely defines the 
time of the action or event, but does not change the nature of it ; 
the passive form still expressing, not properly a passion, but only 
a state or condition of being. 

SECTION IX. Observations on Passive Verbs. 
Some writers on grammar assert, that there are no passive 
verbs in the English language, because we have no verbs of this 
kind with a peculiar termination, all of them bemg fcr;r>ed by the 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

different tenses of the auxiliary to be, joined to the passive parti- 
ciple of the verb. This is, however, to mistake the true nature 
of the English verb ; and to regulate it, not on the principles of 
our own tongue, but on those of foreign languages. The con- 
jugation, or the variation, of the English verb, to answer all the 
purposes of verbs, is accomplished by the means of auxiliaries ; 
and if it be alleged that we have no passive verbs, because we 
cannot exhibit them without having recourse to helping verbs, it 
may with equal truth be said, that we have no perfect, pluperfect, 
or future tense, in the indicative or subjunctive mood ; since 
these, as well as some other parts of the verb active, are formed 
by auxiliaries. 

Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an auxiliary 
to conjugate some of their tenses ; namely, the former, in the 
preterit of the optative and subjunctive moods; and the latter, 
in the perfect and pluperfect of the indicative, the perfect, plu- 
perfect, and future, of the subjunctive mood, and the perfect of 
the infinitive. The deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an 
auxiliary to conjugate several of their tenses. This statement 
abundantly proves that the conjugation of a verb in the learned 
languages does not consist solely in varying the form of the 
original verb. It proves that these languages, like our own 
language, sometimes conjugate with an auxiliary, and some- 
times without it. There is, indeed, a difference. What the 
learned languages require to be done, in some instances, the 
peculiar genius of our own tongue obliges us to do, in active 
verbs, principally, and in passive ones, universally. In short, 
the variation of the verb, in Greek and Latin, is generally ac- 
complished by prefixes, or terminations, added to the verb itself; 
in English, by the addition of auxiliaries. 

The English tongue is, in many respects, materially different 
from the learned languages. It is, therefore, very possible to be 
mistaken ourselves, and to mislead and perplex others, by an 
undistinguishing attachment to the principles and arrangement 
of the Greek and Latin grammarians. Much of the confusion 
and perplexity, which we meet with in the writings of some 
English grammarians, on the subject of verbs, moods, and con- 
jugations, has arisen from the misapplication of names. We are 
apt to think, that the old names must always be attached to the 
identical forms and things to which they were anciently attached. 
But if we rectify this mistake, and properly adjust the names to 
the peculiar forms and nature of the things in our own language, 
we shall be clear and consistent in our ideas ; and, consequently, 
better able to represent them intelligibly to those whom we wish 
to inform. 

The observations which we have made under this head, and 
on the subject of the moods in another place, will not apply to 
the declension and cases of nouns, so as to require us to adopt 
names and divisions similar to those of the Greek and Latin lan- 
guages : for we should then have more cases than there are pre- 

G z 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

positions in connexion with the article and noun : and after all, it 
would be a useless, as well as an unwieldy apparatus ; since every 
English preposition points to, and governs, but one case, namely 
the objective ; which is also true with respect to our governing 
verbs and participles. But the conjugation of an English verb in 
form, through all its moods and tenses, by means of auxiliaries, 
so far from being useless or intricate, is a beautiful and regular 
display of it, and indispensably necessary to the language. 

Some grammarians have alleged, that on the same ground that 
the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue, 
in the forms for which we have contended, we should also admit 
the dual number, the paulo post future tense, the middle voice, 
and all the moods and tenses, which are to be found in Greek and 
Latin. But this objection, though urged with much reliance on 
its weight, is not well founded. If the arrangement of the moods, 
tenses, &c. which we have adopted, is suited to the idiom of our 
tongue ; and the principle, on which they are adopted, is extend- 
ed as far as use and convenience require ; where is the impro- 
priety, in arresting our progress, and fixing our forms at the point 
of utility ? A principle may be warrantably adopted, and car- 
ried to a precise convenient extent, without subjecting its sup- 
porters to the charge of inconsistency, for not pursuing it beyond 
the hne of use and propriety. 

The importance of giving the ingenious student clear and just 
ideas of the nature of our verbs, moods, and tenses, will apolo- 
gize for the extent of the Author's remarks on these subjects, 
both here and elsewhere, and for his solicitude to simplify and 
explain them. — He thinks it has been proved, that the idiom of 
our tongue demands the arrangement he has given to the Eng- 
lish verb ; and that, though the learned languages, with respect 
to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently con- 
structed from the English tongue, yet, in some respects, they are 
so similar to it, as to warrant the principle which he has adopted. 
See pages 55, 56. 60, 61. 73, 74. 139—140. 

SECTION X. Of Irregular Verbs. 

Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im- 
perfect tense, and their perfect participle, by the addition of 
d or ed to the verb : as, 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Part. 


I begin, 


I began, 


begun. 


I know, 


1 knew, 


known. 



Irregular Verbs are of various sorts. 
1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect 
participle the same : as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Cost, cost, cost. 

Put, put, put. 



ETYMOLOGY, 



79 



2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle, the 
same : as, 

Imperfect. Perfect Part, 

abode, abode, 

sell, sold, 

the imperfect tense, and perfect participle 



Present. 
Abide, 
Sell, 
3. Such as have 
different: as, 
Present. 
Arise, 
Blow, 



Imperfect. 
arose, 
blew, 



Perfect Part. 
arisen, 
blown. 



Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as, "feed, fed ; 
leave, left :" others by the termination en ; as, " fall, fell, fallen :" 
others by the termination gat ; as," buy, bought ; teach, taught,"&c. 

The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is presumed* 
be found both comprehensive and accurate. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, a. 


awaked. 


Bear, to bring forth, bare, 


born. 


Bear, to carry, 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, beat 


Begin, 


began, 


begun 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


Bereave, 


bereft, r. 


bereft, r. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed. 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, r. 


caught, r. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave, to stick 


or ) 

> REGULAR. 




adhere, 




Cleave, to split 


clove, or cleft, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clad. r. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


SOSC 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Fr«seiU. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or T ass. Part. 


Crow, 


crew, r. 


crowed. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare, to venture, 


durst, 


dared. 


Dare, r. to challenge 






Deal, 


dealt, r. 


dealt, R. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, r. 


dwelt, r. 


Eat, 


eat or ate, 


eaten. 


Pall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


got* 


Gild, 


gilt, r. 


gilt, r. 


Gird, 


girt, r. 


girt, r. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, r. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hang, 


hung, r. 


hung, r 


Hear 


heard, 


heard. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, r. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Knit, 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten is still in good use 



ETYMOLOGY 



81 



Present 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie, to lie down, 


lay, 


lain. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, r. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, r. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode, ridden.* 


Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw 


sawed, 


sawn, r. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set. 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shape»V 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, r. 


Shear, 


sheared. 


shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 


Show, 


showed 


shown. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod, 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shut. 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, or slitted. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, r. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


4* 


* Ridaen is nearly obsolete. 



at 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Pait. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilt. R. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten.* 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring 


sprung, sprang, sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode or s t na, stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck or stricken 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Strow or strew, 


strowed or strew*!, \ str ° wn ' s V" owed ' 
I strewed. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


swet, r. 


swet, r. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, r 


Swim, 


swum, swam, swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take. 


took, 


taken. 


Tea-ou, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, r. 


thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought, 


wrought or worked 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found to be 


conjugated regularly, as well as 


irregularly ; and those which 


admit of the regu 


lar form are marked with an r. Ihere is a 


preference to be 


given to some 


of these, which custom and 


judgment must determine. Those 


preterits and participles which 



Sjritien is nearly obsolete. 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

are first mentioned in the list, seem to be most eligible. The 
Compiler has not inserted such verbs as are irregular only in 
familiar writing or discourse, and which are improperly termi- 
nated by t, instead of ed : as, learnt, spelt, spilt, &c. These 
should be avoided in every sort of composition. It is, however 
proper to observe, that some contractions of erf into f, are unex- 
ceptionable : and others, the only established forms of expression : 
as crept, gilt, &c. : and lost, felt, slept, &c. These allowable and 
necessary contractions must therefore be carefully distinguished 
by the learner, from these that are exceptionable. The words 
which are obsolete have also been omitted, that the learner might 
not be induced to mistake them for words in present use. Such 
are,wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, bounden, 
&c: and swang, wrang, slank, strawed, gat, brake, tare, ware, &c. 

SECTION XI. Of Defective Verbs; and of the different ways in 
which verbs are conjugated. 

Defective verbs are those which are used only in 
some of their moods and tenses. 

The principal of them are these. 

Peri. 01 Pass. Part 



Present. 
Can, 


Imperfect. 
could, 


May, 
Shall, 


might, 
should, 


Will, 


would, 


Must, 


must, 


Ought, 


ought, 
quoth, 



That the verbs must and ought have both a present and past 
signification, appears from the following sentences: "I must 
own that I am to blame ;" "He must have been mistaken;" 
" Speaking things which they ought not ;" " These ought ye to 
have done." 

In most languages there are some verbs which are defective 
with respect to persons. These are denominated impersonal 
verbs. They are used only in the third person, because they 
refer to a subject peculiarly appropriated to that person ; as, 
" It rains, it snows, it hails, it lightens, it thunders." But as the 
word impersonal implies a total absence of persons, it is impro- 
perly applied to those verbs which have a person : and hence it 
is manifest, that there is no such thing in English, nor indeed, in 
any language, as a sort of verbs really impersonal. 

The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular 
and irregular, simple and compounded, taken together, is about 
4300. The number of irregular verbs, the defective included, is 
about 177* 

Some grammarians have thought that the English verbs, as well 

* The whole number of words, in the English language, is about thirty five 
thousand. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as those of the Greek. Latin, French, and other languages, might 
be classed into several conjugations; and that the three different 
terminations of the participle might he the distinguishing cha- 
racteristics. They have accordingly proposed three conjuga- 
tions ; namely, the first to consist of verbs, the participles of 
which end in ed or its contraction t ; the second, of those ending 
in ght ; and the third of those in en. But as the verbs of the 
first conjugation, would so greatly exceed in number those of 
both the others, as may be seen by the preceding account o~ 
them ; and as those of the third conjugation are so various in 
their form, and incapable of being reduced to one plain rule ; it 
seems better in practice, as Dr. Lowth justly observes, to consider 
the first in ed as the only regular form, and the other as deviations 
from it ; after the example of the Saxon and German grammarians. 
Before we close the account of the verbs, it may afford in- 
struction to the learners, to be informed, more particularly than 
they have been, that different nations have made use of different 
contrivances for marking the tenses and moods of their verbs. 
The Greeks and Latins distinguish them, as well as the cases of 
their nouns, adjectives, and participles, by varying the termina- 
tion, or otherwise changing the form, of the word ; retaining, 
nowever, those radical letters, which prove the inflection to be of 
the same kindred with its root. The modern tongues, particularly 
the English, abound in auxiliary words, which vary the mean- 
ing of the noun, or the verb, without requiring any considerable 
varieties of inflection. Thus, I do love, I did love, I have loved, I 
had loved, I shall love, have the same import with amo, amabam, 
amavi, amaveram, amabo. It is obvious, that a language, like the 
Greek or Latin, which can thus comprehend in one word the 
meaning of two or three words, must have some advantages 
over those which are not so comprehensive. Perhaps, indeed, 
it may not be more perspicuous ; but, in the arrangement of words, 
and consequently in harmony and energy, as well as in con- 
ciseness, it may be much more elegant. 

CHAPTER VIL • 

OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjec- 
tive, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some 
quality or circumstance respecting it: as, " He reads well f 
1 A truli/ good man ;" " He writes very correctly'' 

Some adverbs are compared, thus, "Soon, sooner, soon- 
est ;" " often, oftener, oftenest." Those ending in ly, are 
compared by more, and most : as, " Wisely, more wisely, most 
wisely." 

Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express 
compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required 
two or more : as, " He acted wisely," for, he a' ted with wisdom 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

i prudently," for, with prudence ; "He did i* here," for, he did 
it in this place ; " exceedingly," for, to a great degree ; " often 
and seldom," for many, and for few times ; " very," to*, in an 
eminent degree, &c. 

There are many words in the English language that are sr^e- 
times used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, "More 
men than women were there;" or, " I am more diligent tnan 
he." In the former sentence more is evidently an adjective, and 
in the latter, an adverb. There are others that are sometimes 
used as substantives, and sometimes as adverbs: as, " To-day's 
lesson is longer than yesterday's ;" here to-day and yesterday are 
substantives, because they are words that make sense of them- 
selves, and admit besides of a genitive case: but in the phrase, 
" He came home yesterday, and sets out again to-day," they are 
cflverbs of time ; because they answer to the question when. 
The adverb much is used as all three : as, " Where much is 
given, much is required ;" " Much money has been expended ;" 
"It is much better to go than to stay." In the first of these 
sentences, much is a substantive ; in the second, it is an adjec- 
tive ; and in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the 
sense can determine what they are. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to certain 
classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, 
Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Nega- 
tion, Interrogation, and Comparison. 

1. Of number : as, "Once, twice, thrice," &c. 

2. Of order : as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, 
lastly, finally," &c. 

3. Of place : as, "Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, 
somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, 
downward, forward, backward, whence, hence, thence, whither- 
soever," &c. 

4. Of time. 

Of time present : as, " Now, to-day," &c. 

Of time past : as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, hereto- 
fore, hitherto, long since, long ago," &c. 

Of time to come: as, "To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, hence- 
forth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immedi- 
ately, straightways," &c. 

Of time indefinite : as, " Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, some- 
times, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, 
when, then, ever, never, again," &c. 

5. Of quantity : as, " Much, little, sufficiently, how much, 
how great, enough, abundantly," &c. 

6. Of manner or quality: as, "Wisely, foolishly, justly, un 
justly, quickly, slowly," &c. Adverbs of quality are the most 
numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by adding the 
termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changmg le into 
ly : as, " Bad, badly ; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable: 
admirablv." 

H 



m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Of doubt : as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance * 

8. Of affirmation : as, "Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, 
certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &c. 

9. Of negation : as, "Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in 
nowise," &c. 

10. Of interrogation : as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," &c. 

11. Of comparison : as, " More, most, better, best, worse, worst, 
less, least, very, almost, little, alike," &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which 
are formed by a combination of several of the prepositions with 
the adverbs of place, here, there, and where : as, " Hereof, thereof, 
whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; 
herewith, therewith, wherewith ; herein, therein, wherein ; there- 
fore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. where-for,) hereupon or 
hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or whereon, &c. E% 
cept therefore, these are seldom used. 

In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but be- 
comes an adverb merely by its application : as when we say, 
"he rides about;" "he was near falling ;" "but do not after lay 
the blame on me." 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, 
and the letter a used instead of at, on, &c. : as, "Aside, athirst, 
afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat," &c. 

The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, 
such as, whence, whither, whenever, luhercver, &c. may be properly 
called adverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature 
both of adverbs and conjunctions, of conjunctions, as they 
conjoin sentences; of adverbs, as they denote the attributes 
either of time or of place. 

It may be particularly observed with respect to the word there- 
fire, that it is an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only 
gives the sense of, for that reason. When it gives that sense, 
and also connects, it is a conjunction : as, " He is good, therefore 
he is happy." The same observation may be extended to the 
words consequently, accordingly, and the like. When these are 
subjoined to and, or joined to if since, &c. they are adverbs, the 
connexion being made without their help : when they appear 
single, and unsupported by any other connective, they may be 
called conjunctions. 

The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what necessity there 
is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provided with tenses, to show 
that circumstance. The answer is, though tenses may be suffi- 
cient to denote the greater distinctions of time, yet, to denote 
them all by the tenses would be a perplexity without end. What 
a variety of forms must be given to the verb, to denote yesterday, 
to-day, to-morrow, formerly , lately, just noio, now, immediately, pre- 
sently, soon, hereafter, &c. It was this consideration that made 
the adverbs of time necessary, over and above the tenses. 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

CHAPTER VIII. 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, 
and to show the relation between them. They are, for 
die most part, put before nouns and pronouns, as, " He 
wetit from London to York ;" " She is above disguise ;" 
11 They are instructed by him." 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions : 



Of 


into 


above 


at 


off 


to 


within 


below 


near 


on or upon 


for 


without 


between 


up 


among 


by 


over 


beneath 


down 


after 


with 


under 


from 


before 


about 


in 


through 


beyond 


behind 


against. 



Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition : as, 
to uphold, to invest, to overlook : and this composition some- 
times gives a new sense to the verb ; as, to understand, to with- 
draw, to forgive. But in English, the preposition is more fre- 
quently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an 
adverb, in which situation it is not less apt to affect the sense of 
it, and to give it a new meaning ; and may still be considered as 
belonging to the verb, and as a part of it. As, to cast, is to throw ; 
but to cast up, or to compute, an account,is quite a different thing : 
thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &c. So that the mean- 
ing of the verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the 
preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables 
employed, which grammarians have called inseparable preposi- 
tions : as, be, con, mis, &c. in bedeck, conjoin, mistake : but as 
they are not words of any kind, they cannot properly be called 
a species of preposition. 

One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express those 
relations, which, in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, 
or the different endings of nouns. See page 39. The necessity 
and use of them will appear from the following examples. Ii 
we say, "he writes a pen," "they ran the river," " the tower 
fell the Greeks," " Lambeth is Westminster-abbey," there is 
observable, in each of these expressions, either a total want of 
connexion, or such a connexion as produces falsehood or non- 
sense : and it is evident, that before they can be turned into 
sense, the vacancy must be filled up by some connecting word : 
as thus, " He writes ivith a pen ;" " they ran towards the river ;" 
"the tower fell upon the Greeks;" "Lambeth is over against 
Westminster-abbey." We see by these instances, how preposi- 
tions may be necessary to connect those words, which in their 
signification are not naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to 
have denoted relations of place; but they are now used jigura- 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






lively to express other relations. For example, as they who are 
above have in several respects the advantage of such as are beiow, 
prepositions expressing high and low places are used for superi- 
ority and inferiority in general : as, " He is above disguise ;* "we 
serve under a good master ;" " he rules over a willing people ;" 
" we should do nothing beneath our character." 

The importance of the prepositions will be further perceived 
by the explanation of a few of them. 

Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or consequence, 
and other relations connected with these : as, " The house of 
my friend ;" that is, " the house belonging to my friend ;" " He 
died of a fever;" that is, " in consequence of a fever." 

To, or unto, is opposed to from ; as, " He rode from Salisbury 
to Winchester." 

For indicates the cause or motive of any action or circum- 
stance, &c. as, " He loves her for (that is, on account of) her 
amiable qualities." 

By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, 
means, &c. : as, "He was killed by a fall ;" that is, "a fall was 
the cause of his being killed ;" " This house was built by him ;" 
that is, " he was the builder of it." 

With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c. : as, " We 
will go with you ;" u They are on good terms with each other." 

With also alludes to the instrument or means ; as, " He was 

cut with a knife." 

In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being or act- 
ing, &c. : as, " He was born in (that is, during) the year 1720 ;" 
" He dwells in the city," " She lives in affluence." 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind : as, 
" He retired into the country ;" " Copper is converted into brass." 

Within, relates to something comprehended in any place or 
time : as, " They are within the house ;" " He began and finished 
his work within the limited time." 

The signification of without is opposite to that of ivithin : as, 
" She stands without the gate :" But it is more frequently opposed 
to with ; as, " You may go without me." 

The import and force of the remaining prepositions will be 
readily understood, without a particular detail of them. We 
shall, therefore, conclude this head with observing, that there is 
a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the use of the prepositions 
by and with ; which is observable in sentences like the following: 
" He walks with a staff by moonlight ;" " He was taken by stra- 
tagem, and killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for 
the other, and say, "he walks by a staff with moonlight ;" "he 
was taken with stratagem, and killed by a sword ;" and it will 
appear, that they differ in signification more than one, at first 
view, would be apt to imagine. 

Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect of 
conjunctions; as, " After their prisons were thrown open," &c. 
" Before I die ;" " They made haste to be prepared against their 



ETYxMOLOGY. 8fi 

friends arrived :" but if the noun time, which is understood, be 
added, they will lose their conjunctive form ; as, " After [thft 
time when] their prisons," &c. 

The prepositious after, before, above, beneath, and several others 
sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered : as, 
" They had their reward soon after';" " He died not long before ;" 
" He dwells above :" but if the nouns time and place be added, 
they will lose their adverbial form ; as, " He died not long. before 
that time," &c. 

CHAPTER IX. 
OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used 
to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences 
to make but one. It sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, the 
copulative and the disjunctive. 

The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to con- 
tinue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, 
a cause, &c. : as, " He and his brother reside in London;" 
1 I will go if he will accompany me." " You are happy, be- 
cause you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to connect 
and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition 
of meaning in different degrees: as, " Though he was fre- 
quently reproved, yet he did not reform ;" " They came with 
her, but they went away without her." 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. 

The Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, 
therefore, wherefore. 

The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, 
either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction 
and as an adverb ; and sometimes, as a preposition. " I rest then 
upon this argument;" then is here a conjunction: in the follow- 
ing phrase, it is an adverb ; " He arrived then, and not before." 
" I submitted ; for it was vain to resist :" in this sentence, for is 
a conjunction; in the next, it is a preposition: "He contended 
for victory only." In the first of the following sentences, since 
is a conjunction; in the second, it is a preposition; and in the 
third, an adverb : " Since we must part, let us do it peaceably." 
"I have not seen him since that time:" "Our friendship com- 
menced long since" 

Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions, serve to connect 
sentences : as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and 
keepeth his commandments." 

A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronoun and 

H2 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a connective. Nay, the union by relatives is rather closer, than 
that by mere conjunctions. The latter may form two or more 
sentences into one ; but, by the former, several sentences may 
incorporate in one and the same clause of a sentence. Thus, 
" thou seest a man, and he is called Peter," is a sentence con- 
sisting of two distinct clauses, united by the copulative and : but, 
" the man whom thou seest is called Peter," is a sentence of one 
clause, and not less comprehensive than the other. 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to 
unite only words ; as in the following instances : " Duty and in- 
terest forbid vicious indulgences ;" "Wisdom or folly governs 
us." Each of these forms of expression contains two sentences, 
namely ; " Duty forbids vicious indulgences ; interest forbids vi- 
cious indulgences ;" " Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us." 

Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect sen- 
tences together, yet, on some occasions, it merely connects 
words, not sentences ; as, " The king and queen are an amiable 
pair ;" where the affirmation cannot refer to each ; it being absurd 
to say, that the king or the queen only is an amiable pair. So in 
the instances, " two and two are four ;" " the fifth and sixth 
volumes will complete the set of books." Prepositions also, as 
before observed, connect words ; but they do it to show the re- 
lation which the connected words have to each other: conjunc- 
tions, when they unite words only, are designed to show the re- 
lations, which those words, so united, have to other parts of the 
sentence. 

As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases ap- 
propriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed 
in joining the members of a sentence ; so there are several con- 
junctions appropriated to the latter use, which are never employed 
in the former; and some that are equally adapted to both those pur- 
poses : as, again, further, besides, &c. of the first kind ; than, lest, 
unless, that, so that, &c. of the second ; and but, and, for* there- 
fore, &c. of the last. 

We shall close this chapter w T ith a few observations on the 
peculiar use and advantage of the conjunctions ; a subject which 
will, doubtless, give pleasure to the ingenious student, and ex- 
pand his views of the importance of his grammatical studies. 

" Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunctions. 
The former make speech more concise ; the latter make it more 
explicit. Relatives comprehend the meaning of a pronoun and 
conjunction copulative: conjunctions, while they couple sen- 
tences, may also express opposition, inference, and many other 
relations and dependences. 

Till men began to think in a train, and to carry their reason- 
ings to a considerable length, it is not probable that they w r ould 
make much use of conjunctions, or of any other connectives. 
Ignorant people, and children, generally speak in short and sepa- 
rate sentences. The same thing is true of barbarous nations 
and hence uncultivated languages are not well supplied wift; 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

connecting particles. The Greeks were the greatest reasoners 
that ever appeared in the world ; and their language, according 
ly, abounds more than any other in connectives. 

Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all sorts of writing 
In poetry, where great conciseness of phrase is required, and 
every appearance of formality avoided, many of them would 
have a bad effect. In passionate language too, it may be proper 
to omit them : because it is the nature of violent passion, to speak 
rather in disjointed sentences, than in the way of inference and 
argument. Books of aphorisms, like the Proverbs of Solomon, 
have few connectives ; because they instruct, not by reasoning, 
but in detached observations. And narrative will sometimes ap- 
pear very graceful, when the circumstances are plainly told, with 
scarcely any other conjunction than the simple copulative and : 
which is frequently the case in the historical parts of Scripture. 
When narration is full of images or events, the omission of con- 
nectives may, by crowding the principal words upon one another, 
give a sort of picture of hurry and tumult, and so heighten the 
vivacity of description. But when facts are to be traced down 
through their consequences, or upwards to their causes ; when 
the complicated designs of mankind are to be laid open, or con- 
jectures offered concerning them ; when the historian argues 
either for the elucidation of truth, or in order to state the pleas 
and principles of contending parties; there will be occasion for 
every species of connective, as much as in philosophy itself. In 
fact, it is in argument, investigation, and science, that this part 
of speech is peculiarly and indispensably necessary." 

CHAPTER X. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of 
a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the speak- 
er : as, " Oh ! I have alienated my friend ; alas ! I fear for 
life ;" " O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 

The English Interjections, as well as those of other languages, 
are comprised within a small compass. They are of different 
sorts, according to the different passions which they serve to ex- 
press. Those which intimate earnestness or grief, are, O! oh! 
ah! alas! Such as are expressive of contempt, are pish! tush ! 
of wonder, heigh ! really! strange! of calling, hem ! ho! soho ! 
of aversion or disgust, fo h ! Jie! away ! of a call of the attention, 
lo ! behold! hark! of requesting silence, hush! hist! of saluta- 
tion, welcome ! hail ! all Kail ! Besides these, several others, fre- 
quent in the mouths of the multitude, might be enumerated ; but, 
in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it is unnecessary to expa- 
tiate on such expressions of passion, as are scarcely worthy of 
being ranked among the branches of artificial language. — See the 
Octavo Grammar. 



n ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER XL 
OF DERIVATION. 
SECTION I. Of the various ways in which words are derived 
from one another. 
HAVING treated of the different sorts of words, arid their va- 
rious modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now 
proper to explain the methods by which one w T ord is derived from 
another. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways ; viz. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and some 
times from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs: as, from " to love," 
comes "lover;" from "to visit, visiter ;" from "to survive, sur- 
viver ;" &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to 
determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the 
noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, to 
fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to act," &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and some- 
times from adverbs : as, from the substantive salt, comes " to salt ;" 
from the adjective warm, " to warm ;" and from the adverb for- 
ward, " to forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthen- 
ing the vowel, or softening the consonant; as, from "grass, to 
graze :" sometimes by adding en; as, from "length, to lengthen ;" 
especially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten; bright, to 
brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the following 
manner : Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from substan- 
tives, by adding y : as, from " Health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy ; 
might, mighty," &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which anything is made, 
are derived from substantives by adding en : as, from " Oak, 
oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, woolen," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from substantives, 
by adding ful : as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful,"&c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, 
are derived from substantives, by adding some : as, from " Light, 
lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome," &c. 

Adjectives denoting want, are derived from substantives, by 
adding less : as, from " Worth, worthless ;" from " care, careless ; 
joy, joyless," &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from substantives, by 
adding ly : as, from " Man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, 
lourtly," &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or fiom 
substantives, by adding ish to them ; which termination, when 



ETYMOLOGY 93 

added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality 
as, "White, whitish;" i.e. somewhat white. When added to 
substantives, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character : as, 
" child, childish ; thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs, by 
adding the termination able ; and those adjectives signify capa- 
city : as, " Answer, answerable ; to change, changeable." 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes by 
adding the termination ness : as, " White, whiteness ; swift, 
swiftness:" sometimes by adding th or t, and making a small 
change in some of the letters : as, " Long, length ; high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding 
ly, or changing le into ly, and denote the same quality as the 
adjectives from which they are derived : as, from " base," 
comes "basely;" from " slow, slowly ;" from "able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one 
another, that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossi- 
ble, to enumerate them. The primitive words of any language 
are very few; the derivatives form much the greater number. 
A few more instances only can be given here. 

Some substantives are derived from other substantives, by 
adding the terminations hood or head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, 
ian, ment, and age. 

Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as signify cha- 
racter or qualities: as, " Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c. 

Substantives ending in ship, are those that signify office, em- 
ployment, state, or condition : as, "Lordship, stewardship, part- 
nership," &c. Some substantives in ship, are derived from ad- 
jectives: as, "Hard, hardship," &c. 

Substantives which end in try, signify action or habit: as, 
" Slavery, foolery, prudery," &c. Some substantives of this sort 
come from adjectives ; as, " Brave, bravery," &c. 

Substantives ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote dominion, 
jurisdiction, or condition : as, " Bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom, 
dukedom, freedom," &c. 

Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession ; 
as, "Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in ment and age, 
come generally from the French, and commonly signify the act 
or habit: as, "Commandment, usage." 

Some substantives ending in ard, are derived from verbs or 
adjectives, and denote character or habit : as, "Drunk, drunkard ; 
dote, dotard." 

Some substantives have the form of diminutives ; but these 
are not many. They are formed by adding the terminations, 
kin, ling, ing, ock, el, and the like : as, " Lamb, lambkin ; goose, 
gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock; cock, cockerel," &c. 

That part of derivation which consists in tracing English 
words to the Saxon,. Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, 
must be omitted, as the English scholar is not supposed to be 
acquainted with these languages. The best English dictiona 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



id, to 



ries will, however, furnish some information on this head, to 
those who are desirous of obtaining it. The learned Home 
Tooke, in his "Diversions of Purley," has given an ingenious 
account of the derivation and meaning of many of the adverbs, 
conjunctions, and prepositions. 

It is highly probable that the system of this acute grammarian, 
is founded in truth ; and that adverbs, prepositions, and con 
junctions, are corruptions or abbreviations of other parts of 
speech. But as many of them are derived from obsolete words 
in our own language, or from words in kindred languages, the rad- 
ical meaning of which is, therefore, either obscure, or generally 
unknown ; as the system of this very able etymologist is not 
universally admitted ; and as, by long prescription, whatever 
may have been their origin, the words in question appear to have 
acquired a title to the rank of distinct species ; it seems proper to 
consider them, as such, in an elementary treatise of grammar: 
especially as this plan coincides with that, by which other lan- 
guages must be taught ; and will render the study of them less 
intricate. It is of small moment, by what names and classifica- 
tion we distinguish these words, provided their meaning and 
use are well understood. A philosophical consideration of the 
subject may, with great propriety, be entered upon by the gram- 
matical student, when his knowledge and judgment become more 
improved. 

SECTION II. A sketch of the steps, by which the English Lan- 
guage has risen to its present state of refinement. 

Before we conclude the subject of derivation, it will proba- 
bly be gratifying to the curious scholar, to be informed of some 
particulars respecting the origin of the English language, and 
the various nations to which it is indebted for the copiousness, 
elegance, and refinement, which it has now attained. 

" When the ancient Britons were so harassed and oppressed 
by the invasions of their northern neighbours, the Scots and 
Picts, that their situation was truly miserable, they sent an em- 
bassy (about the middle of the fifth century) to the Saxons, a 
warlike people inhabiting the north of Germany, with solicita- 
tions for speedy relief. The Saxons accordingly carne over to 
Britain, and were successful in repelling the incursions of the 
Scots and Picts ; but seeing the weak and defenceless state of 
the Britons, they resolved to take advantage of it ; and at length 
established themselves in the greater part of South-Britain, after 
having dispossessed the original inhabitants. 

" From these barbarians, who founded several petty kingdoms 
in this island, and introduced their own laws, language, and 
manners, is derived the groundwork of the English language ; 
which, even in its present state of cultivation, and notwithstand- 
ing the successive augmentations and improvements, which it 
has received through various channels, displays very conspicu- 
ous traces of its Saxon original. 






ETYMOLOGY 95 

"The Saxons did not long remain in quiet possession of the 
kingdom ; for before the middle of the ninth century, the Danes, 
a hardy and adventurous nation, who had long infested the 
northern seas with their piracies, began to ravage the English 
coasts. Their first attempts were, in general, attended wkh 
such success, that they were encouraged to a renewal of their 
ravages ; till, at length, in the beginning of the eleventh century, 
they made themselves masters of the greater part of England. 

" Though the period, during which these invaders occupied 
the English throne, was very short, not greatly exceeding half a 
century, it is highly probable that some change was introduced 
by them into the language spoken by those, whom they had 
subdued : but this change cannot be supposed to have been very 
considerable, as the Danish and Saxon languages arose from one 
common source, the Gothic being the parent of both. 

"The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, were 
the Normans, who, in the. year 1066, introduced their leader 
William to the possession of the English throne. This prince, 
soon after his accession, endeavoured to bring his own language 
(the Norman-French) into use among his new subjects ; but his 
efforts were not very successful, as the Saxons entertained a 
great antipathy to these haughty foreigners. In process of time, 
however, many Norman words and phrases were incorporated 
into the Saxon language : but its general form and construction 
still remained the same. - 

"From the Conquest to the Reformation, the language con- 
tinued to receive occasional accessions of foreign words, till it 
acquired such a degree of copiousness and strength, as to render 
it susceptible of that polish, which it has received from writers 
of taste and genius, in the last and present centuries. During 
this period, the learned have enriched it with many significant 
expressions, drawn from the treasures of Greek and Roman 
literature; the ingenious and the fashionable have imported oc- 
casional supplies of French, Spanish, Italian, and German words, 
gleaned during their foreign excursions ; and the connexions 
which we maintain, through the medium of government and 
commerce, with many remote nations, have made some addi- 
tions to our native vocabulary. 

" In this manner did the ancient language of the Anglo-Saxons 
proceed, through the various stages of innovation, and the several 
gradations of refinement, to the formation of the present En# 
tish tongue." 

See the Twelfth Chapter of the Octavo Gramm** 



[ 96 ] 

PART III. 

SYJVTrfX. 

The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treats oi 
the agreement and construction of words in a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a com 
plete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one 
finite* verb : as, " Life is short/' 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences connected together : as, " Life is short, and art is 
long." " Idleness produces want, vice, and misery." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, 
so the members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple 
and compound members : for whole sentences, whether simple 
or compounded, may become members of other sentences, by 
means of some additional connexion ; as in the following exam- 
ple : " The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's 
crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider.*' 
This sentence consists of two compounded members, each of 
which is subdivided into two simple members, which are properly 
called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the explicative, or 
explaining ; the interrogative, or asking ; the imperative, or com- 
manding. 

An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or not to 
be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not suffer, in a direct manner : 
as, "I am ; thou writest; Thomas is loved." If the sentence be 
negative, the adverb not is placed after the auxiliary, or after the 
verb itself when it has no auxiliary : as, " I did not touch him ;" 
or, " I touched him not." 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, the 
nominative case follows the principal verb or the auxiliary: as, 
" Was it he ?" " Did Alexander conquer the Persians ?" 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, 
to do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the 
verb or the auxiliary: as, " Go, thou traitor!" "Do thou go:" 
I Haste ye away :" unless the verb let be used ; as, " Let us be 
gone." 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes 
a whole sentence. 



* Finite veros are tnose to which number and person appertain. Verbs in the 
infinitive mood have no respect to number or person. 



Rule L] SYNTAX. 97 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the subject, 
the attribute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute 
is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the ob- 
ject is the thing affected by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes be- 
fore the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase, denoting 
the object, follows the verb ; as, " A wise man governs his 
passions." Here, a wise man is the subject* governs, the at- 
tribute, or thing affirmed ; and his passions, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Go- 
vernment. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with 
another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech has 
over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of words 
in a sentence, the following rules and observations should 
be carefully studied. 

RULE I. 

A Verb must agree with its nominative case, in number 
and person : as, " 1 learn;" " Thou art improved ;" " The 
birds sing." 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule. 
" What signifies good opinions, when our practice is bad ?" " what 
signify" " There's two or three of us, who have seen the work :" 
" there are" " We may suppose there was more impostors than 
one :" " There ivere more." " I have considered what have been 
said on both sides in this controversy :" " what has been said." 
" If thou would he healthy, live temperately :" "if thou ivouldst." 
" Thou sees how little has been done :" "thou seest" " Though 
thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may and should do 
something :" " canst not, mayst, and shouldst" " Full many a 
flower are born to blush unseen :" " is born." " A conformity of 
inclinations and qualities prepare us for friendship:" "prepare? 
us." " A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us :" 
" has been." " In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man :" 
" consists" " To these precepts are subjoined a copious selec- 
tion of rules and maxims :" " is subjoined." 

*1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes 
put as the nominative case to the verb : as, "To see the sun is 
pleasant;" "To be good is to be happy ;" "A desire to excel 
others in learning and virtue is commendable;" "That warm 

* The chief practical notes under each Rule, are regularly numbered, in order 
to make them correspond to the examples in the volume of Exercises. 
5 I 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule i 

climates should accelerate the growth of the human body, and 
shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe ;" " To be 
temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the open 
air, and to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are 
the best preservatives of health." 

2 Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the participle, 
ought to have a nominative case, either expressed or implied : as, 
"Awake ; arise ;'' that is, " Awake ye ; arise ye." 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use o 
the verb without its nominative case. " As it hath pleased hin\ 
of his goodness to give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved 
you in the great danger," &c. The verb " hath preserved," has here 
no nominative case, for it cannot be properly supplied by the pre 
ceding word, "him" which is in the objective case. It ought to 
be, " and as he hath preserved you ;" or rather, " and to preserve 
you." " If the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, 
had continued ;" " and which lasted," &c. " These we have ex- 
tracted from an historian of undoubted credit, and are the same 
that were practised," &c; "and they are the same." "A man 
whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities 
to manage the business;" "and who had," &c. "A cloud ga- 
thering in the north ; which we have helped to raise, and may 
quickly break in a storm upon our heads;" "and which may 
quickly." 

3 Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when 
an address is made to a person, should belong to some verb, 
either expressed or implied : as, " Who wrote this book ?" 
"James ;" that is, "James wrote it." " To whom thus Adam," 
that is, "spoke." 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative 
case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may 
be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of the preceding ob 
servation. 

" Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighbouring prince 
would have wanted a great deal of that incense which hath been 
offered up to him." The pronoun it is here the nominative case 
to the verb " observed ;" and which rule, is left by itself, a nomi- 
native case without any verb following it. This form of expres- 
sion, though improper, is very common. It ought to be, " If this 
rule had been observed," &c. " Man, though he has great va- 
riety of thoughts, and such from which others as well as himself 
might receive profit and delight, yet they are all within his own 
breast." In this sentence, the nominative man stands alone and 
unconnected with any verb, either expressed or implied. It 
should be, " Though man has great variety," &c. ?*- 

4 When a verb comes between two nouns, either cf which 
maybe understood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree 
with either of them : but some regard must be had to that which 
is more naturally the subject of it, as also to that wL,en stands 
next to the verb : as, " His meat ivas locusts and wild honey ;" " A 



Rule i.] SYNTAX. 99 

great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put 
upon it ;" " The wages of sin is death." 

5 When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, 
but is put before a participle, independently on the rest of the 
sentence, it is called the case absolute : as, " Shame being lost, 
all virtue is lost ;" " That having been discussed long ago, there 
is no occasion to resume it." 

As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, 
always the nominative, the following example is erroneous, in 
making it the objective. " Solomon was of this mind ; and I 
have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body 
has done since ; him only excepted, who was a much greater and 
wiser man than Solomon." It should be, " he only excepted." 



The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb ; but 
sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense ; and 
between the auxiliary, and the verb or participle, if a compound 
tense: as, 

1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish 
expressed : as, " Confidest thou in me ?" " Read thou ;" "Mayst 
thou be happy !" " Long live the King !" 

2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunction if: 
as, " Were it not for this ;" " Had I been there." 

3d, When a verb neuter is used : as, " On a sudden appeared 
the king." 

4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, there, 
then, thence, hence, thus, &c. : as, " Here am I ;" " There was he 
slain ;" " Then coineth the end ;" " Thence ariseth his grief;" 
" Hence proceeds his anger ;" " Thus was the affair settled." 

5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be 
coupled with another sentence: as, "Ye shall not eat of it, 
neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die." 

Some grammarians assert,' that the phrases, as follows, as ap- 
pears, form what are called impersonal verbs ; and should, there- 
fore, be confined to the singular number: as, " The arguments 
advanced were nearly as follows ;" " The positions were as ap- 
pears incontrovertible:" that is, " as it follows," " as it appears." 
If we give (say they) the sentence a different turn, and instead of 
as, say such as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal ; but 
properly agrees with its nominative, in the plural number: as, 
J The arguments advanced were nearly such as follow ;" " The 
positions were such as appear incontrovertible."* 



* These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the authority 
of an eminent critic on language and composition. " When a verb is used im- 
personally," says Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, " it ought un- 
doubtedly to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed 
or understood." For this reason, analogy and usage favour this mode of ex- 
pression : " The conditions of the agreement were as follows ;" and not, as fol- 
low. A few late writers have inconsiderately adopted this last form, through 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, 
" That as, however and whenever used in English, means the 
same as it, or that, or which ,•" and who are not satisfied whether 
the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, should be in the sin- 
gular or the plural number, may vary the form of expression. 
Thus, the sense of the preceding sentences, may be conveyed in 
the following terms. " The arguments advanced were nearly 
of the following nature ;" "The following are nearly the argu- 
ments which were advanced ;" " The arguments advanced were 
nearly those which follow:" " It appears that the positions were 
incontrovertible ;" "That the positions were incontrovertible is 
apparent;" "The positions were apparently incontrovertible." 
See the Octavo Grammar, the Note under Rule I. 

RULE II. 

Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular number, joined 
together by a copulative conjunction, expressed or under- 
stood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with 
them in the plural number : as, " Socrates and Plato were 
wise ; they were the most eminent philosophers of Greece ;" 
" The sun that rolls over our heads, the food that we receive, 
the rest that we enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and 
superintending Power."* 

This rule is often violated; some instances of which are an- 
nexed. "And so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, 
who were partners with Simon;" "and so were also." "All 
joy, tranquillity, and peace, even for ever and ever, doth dwell ;" 
"dwell for ever." "By whose power all good and evil is dis- 
tributed ;" " are distributed." " Their love, and their hatred, and 
their envy, is now perished ;" " are perished." " The thought- 
less and intemperate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse 
of it, and the forgetfulness of our being accountable creatures, 
obliterates every serious thought of the proper business of life, 
and effaces the sense of religion and of God ;" It ought to be> 
" obliterate" and " efface." 

1 When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguish 
able in sense, and sometimes even when they are very different, 
some authors have thought it allowable to put the verbs, nouns, 
and pronouns, in the singular number: as, "Tranquillity and 
peace dwells there ;" " Ignorance and negligence has produced 
the effect;" "The discomfiture and slaughter was very great." 
But it is evidently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to 
consider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their 
shades of difference : and if there be no difference, one of them 
must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected. 

a mistake of the construction. For the same reason, we ought to say, " I shall 
consider Ills censures so far only as concerns my friend's conduct;" afiitl not 'so 
far as concern. 1 

* See the exceptions to this rule, at p. 46 of the Key ; 12th edition. 



Kule ii.J SYNTAX. 101 

To support the above construction, it is said, that the rerb 
may he understood as applied to eachof the preceding terms ; as 
in the following example. " Saw^fiuf'salt, and a mass of iron, 
is easier to hear than a man without understanding." But be- 
sides the confusion, and the latitude of application, which such 
a construction would introduce, it appears to be more proper and 
analogical, in cases where the verb is intended to be applied to 
any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, 
which grammatically refers the verb to one or other of the pre- 
ceding terms in a separate view. To preserve the distgictive 
uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, would ren- 
der the rules precise, consistent, and intelligible. Dr. Blair very 
justly observes, that " two or more substantives, joined by a copu- 
lative, must always require the verb or pronoun to which they 
refer, to be placed in the plural number " 

2 In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to 
determine, whether one or more of the clauses are to be con- 
sidered as the nominative case ; and consequently, whether the 
verb should be in the singular or the plural number. We shall, 
therefore, set down a number of varied examples of this nature, 
which may serve as some government to the scholar, with re- 
spect to sentences of a similar construction. " Prosperity, with 
humility, renders its possessor truly amiable." "The ship, with 
all her furniture, ivas destroyed." "Not only his estate, his re 
putation too has suffered by his misconduct." " The general 
also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied for redress." 
" He cannot be justified ; for it is true, that the prince, as well as 
the people, was blameworthy." " The king, with his lifeguard, 
has just passed through the village." " In the mutual influence 
of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which 
we cannot fathom." " Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest 
*onspire to recommend the measure." "Patriotism, morality, 
every public and private consideration, demand our submission 
to just and lawful government." "Nothing delights me so much 
as the works of nature." 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, wo 
see the authority of Hume, Priestley, and other writers ; and we 
annex them for the reader's consideration. " A long course of 
time, with a variety of accidents and circumstances, are requisite 
to produce those revolutions." "The king, with the lords tmd 
commons, /or/ft an excellent frame of government." " The side 
A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle." " The fire 
communicated itself to the bed, which, with the furniture of the 
room, and a valuable library, were all entirely consumed." It is, 
however, proper to observe, that these modes of expression do 
not appear to be warranted by the just principles of construc- 
tion. The words, " A long course of time " " The king," " The 
side A," zn\ " which," are the true nominatives to the respect 
ive verbs. In the last example, the word all should be expunged. 
As the preposition with governs the objective case in English ; 



.02 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IRule in, rv. 

and, if translated into Latin, would govern the ahlative case, it is 
manifest, that the clauses following with, in the preceding sen- 
tences, cannot form any part of the nominative case. They 
cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative 
cases. The following sentence appears to be unexceptionable ; 
and may serve to explain the others. " The lords and commons 
are essential branches of the British constitution : the king, with 
them, forms an excellent frame of government."'* 

3 If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together 
by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making 
the plural pronoun agree with them in person, the second per- 
son takes place of the third, and the first of both: as, "James, 
and thou, and I, are attached to our country." " Thou and he 
shared it between you." 

RULE III. 

The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to 
that of the conjunction copulative : for as the verb, noun, 
or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken sepa- 
rately, it must be in the singular number : as, " Ignorance 
or negligence has caused this mistake ;" " John, James, or 
Joseph, intends to accompany me ;" " There is, in many 
minds, neither knowledge nor understanding." 

The following sentences are variations from this rule : " A man 
may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read 
them in a description ;" " read it." " Neither character nor dia- 
logue were yet understood ;" " was yet." " It must indeed be 
confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery 
or murder ;" " does not carry in it." " Death, or some worse mis- 
fortune, soon divide them." It ought to be " divides." 

1 When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different 
persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with 
that person which is placed nearest to it : as, " I or thou art to 
blame;" "Thou or I am in fault;" " I, or thou, or he, is the 
author of it;" " George or lam the person." But it would be 
better to say ; "Either I am to blame, or thou art," &c. 

2 When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pro- 
noun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural 
noun and pronoun: as, "Neither poverty nor riches were inju- 
rious to him ;" " I or they were offended by it." But in this case, 
the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently be done, 
should be placed next to the verb. 

RULE IV. 

A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have a 
verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or 

* Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, tne sentence would 
certainly stand better thus : "The king, the lords, and the commons, form an 
excellent constitution." 



Rule v] SYNTAX * 103 

plural number ; yet not without regard to the import of the 
word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea : as, " The 
meeting was large ;" " The parliament is dissolved ;" " The 
nation is powerful ;" " My people do not consider : they 
have not known me ;" " The multitude eagerly pursue 
pleasure, as their chief good ;" " The council were divided 
i:i their sentiments." 

We ought to consider whether the term will immediately sug- 
gest the idea of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits 
to the mind the idea of the whole as one thing. In the former 
case, the verb ought to be plural ; in the latter, it ought to be 
singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, " The peasantry goes 
barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." It 
would be better to say, " The peasantry go barefoot, and the 
middle sort make use," &c. because the idea in both these cases, 
is that of a number. On the contrary, there is a harshness in 
the following sentences, in which nouns of number have verbs 
plural ; because the ideas they represent seem not to be suffi- 
ciently divided in the mind. a The court of Rome were not 
without solicitude." " The house of commons were of small 
weight." " The house of lords were so much influenced by 
these reasons." "Stephen's party were entirely broken up by 
the captivity of their leader." "An army of twenty-four thousand 
were assembled." " What reason have the church of Rome for 
proceeding in this manner ?" " There is indeed no constitution 
so tame and careless of their own defence." " All the virtues of 
mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and 
vices are innumerable." Is not mankind in this place a noun of 
multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to it to be 
in the plural number, their"? 

RULE V. 

Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and 
the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number : as t 
" This is the friend whom I love ;" " That is the vice which 
I hate ;" " The king and the queen had put on their robes ;" 
" The moon appears, and she shines, but the light is not her 
own." 

The relative is of the same person as the antecedent, and 
Ihe verb agrees with it accordingly : as, " Thou who lovest 
wisdom ;" " I who speak from experience." 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few 
of which may be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. " Each 
of the sexes should keep within its particular bounds, and con- 
tent themsetves with the advantages of their particular districts :" 
better thus: "The sexes should keep within their particular 
bcunds," &c. "Can any one, on their entrance into the world. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule t 

be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ?" " on his en 
trance," and " that he shall." " One should not think too favoura- 
bly of ourselves;" " of one's self." " He had one acquaintance 
which poisoned his principles ;" "who poisoned." 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, 
either expressed or implied : as, " Who is fatal to others is so to 
himself;" that is, " the man who is fatal to others." 

JVho, which, what, and the relative that, though in the objective 
case, are always placed before the verb ; as are also their com- 
pounds, whoever, whosoever, &c. ; as, "He whom ye seek;" 
" This is what, or the thing which, or that you want ;" " Whom- 
soever you please to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears to be 
exceptionable: as, "AM fevers, except what are called nervous." 
&c. It would at least be better to say, " except those which are 
called nervous." 

1 Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the 
noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence as the 
noun which they represent ; for it would be improper to say, 
" The king he is just ;" " I saw her the queen ;" " The men they 
were there ;" " Many words they darken speech ;" " My banks 
they are furnished with bees." These personals are superfluous, 
as there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the same 
part where the principal word is present. The nominative case 
they, in the following sentence, is also superfluous; " Who, in- 
stead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon 
doing mischief." 

2 The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as 
to things ; but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and 
after the pronominal adjective same, it is generally used in pre- 
ference to who or which: as, "Charles XII. king of Sweden, 
was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw ;" 
"Cataline's followers were the most profligate that could be 
found in any city." " He is the same man that we saw before." 
There are cases wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with 
this relative as applied to persons : as first, after who the in- 
terrogative; " Who that has any sense of religion, would have 
argued thus ?" Secondly, when persons make but a part of the 
antecedent ; " The woman, and the estate, that became his por- 
tion, were too much for his moderation." In neither of these 
examples could any other relative have been used. 

3 The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, are ele- 
gantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding sub- 
stantives: thus, " On whichsoever side the king cast his eyes ;" 
would have sounded better, if written, "On which side so- 
ever," &c. 

4 Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective 
case of the personal pronouns, in the place of these and those : 
as, "Give me them books;" instead of "those books.'- We 
may sometimes find this fault even in writing : as, " Observe 



Rule v.] SYNTAX. 105 

them three there." We also frequently meet with those instead 
of they, at the beginning of a sentence, and where there is no 
particular reference to an antecedent ; as, " Those that sow in 
tears, sometimes reap in joy." They that, or they who sow 
in tears. 

It is not. however, always easy to say, whether a personal 
pronoun or a demonstrative is preferable, in certain constructions. 
" We are not unacquainted with the calumny of them [or those] 
who openly make use of the warmest professions." 

5 In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, 
and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing : "They will 
never believe but what I have been entirely to blame." " I am 
not satisfied but what," &c. instead of " but that" The word 
somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used impro- 
perly. " These punishments seem to have been exercised in 
somewhat an arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, "In 
somewhat of." The meaning is, " in a manner which is in some 
respects arbitrary." 

6 The pronoun relative ivho is so much apropriated to per- 
sons, that there is generally harshness in the application of it 
except to the proper names of persons, or the general terms man* 
woman, &c. A term which only implies the idea of persons, 
and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will hardly 
authorize the use of it: as, "That fiction in England who most 
powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions." " That faction 
which," would have been better ; and the same remark will serve 
for the following examples : " France, who was in alliance with 
Sweden." "The court, who," &c. "The cavalry, who," &c. 
" The cities icho aspired at liberty." " That party among us 
who," &c. "The family whom they consider as usurpers." 

in some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is 
properly applied or not : as, " The number of substantial inhabit- 
ants with whom some cities abound." For when a term directly 
and necessarily implies persons, it may in many cases claim the 
personal relative. " None of the company whom he most affected 
could cure him of the melancholy under which he laboured 
The word acquaintance may have the same construction. 

7 We hardly consider little children as persons, because 
that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection: and there- 
fore the application of the personal relative ivho, in this case, 
seems to be harsh : " A child who" It is still more improperly 
applied to animals: "A lake frequented by that fowl whom na 
ture has taught to dip the wing in water." 

8 When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and 
it does not refer to the person, the pronoun ivho ought not to be 
applied. "It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at the 
court of queen Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence 
and economy." Better thus; "whose name was but another 
word for prudence, &c." The word whose begins likewise to be 
restricted to persons; yet it is not done so generally, but that 

5* 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule * 

good writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of things. 
The construction is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may 
see in the following instances: "Pleasure, whose nature, &c." 
" Call every production, whose parts and whose nature," &c. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with 
respect to persons ; and that is when we want to distinguish 
one person of two, or a particular person among a number of 
others. We should then say, " Which of the two," or " Which 
of them, is he or she ?" 

9 As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we 
sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it: as Avhen we sa\ 7 , 
" The disciples of Christ, whom we imitate ;" we may mean the 
imitation either of Christ, or of his disciples. The accuracy and 
clearness of the sentence, depend very much upon the proper 
and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily pre- 
sent its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without 
any obscurity or ambiguity. 

10 It is and it was, are often, after the manner of the French, 
used in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers : 
as, " It is either a few great men who decide for the whole, or 
it is the rabble that follow a seditious ringleader ;" " It is they 
that are the real authors, though the soldiers are the actors of 
the revolution ;" " It was the heretics that first began to rail," &c. ; 
"'Tis these that early taint the female mind." This license in 
the construction of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, 
however, been certainly abused in the following sentence, which 
is thereby made a very awkward one. " It is wonderful the 
very few accidents, which, in several years, happen from this 
practice." 

11 The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! require the objective 
case of a pronoun in the first person after them : as, " O me 1 
Oh me ! Ah me !" But the nominative case in the second person : 
as, " O thou persecutor !" "Oh ye hypocrites!" "O thou, who 
dwellest," &c. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English 
language, is frequently joined in explanatory sentences, with a 
noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender : as, " It 
was I;" " It was the man or woman that did it." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood ; 
thus we say, " As appears, as follows ;" for " As it appears, as 
it follows ;" and " May be," for " It may be." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express ; 

1st, The subject of any discourse or inquiry : as, " It happened 
on a summer's day;" " Who is it that calls on me ?" 

2d, The state or condition of any person or thing: as, " Hon* 
is it with you ?" 

3d, The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect oi 
event, or any person considered merely as a cause : as, " Wa 
heard her say it was not he ;" " The truth is, it was I that helped 
her " 



Rule vi.] SYNTAX. 107 

RULE VI. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb when no 
nominative comes between it and the verb : as, " The mas- 
ter who taught us ;" " The trees which are planted." 

When a nominative comes between the relative and the 
verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own mem- 
ber of the sentence: as, " He who preserves me, to whom I 
owe my being, whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal." 

Tn the several members of the last sentence, the relative per- 
forms a different office. In the first member, it marks the agent ; 
in the second, it submits to the government of the preposition ; 
in the third, it represents the possessor ; and in the fourth, the 
object of an action : and therefore it must be in the three different 
sases, correspondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, 
each to different verbs, the relative is the nominative to the 
former, and the antecedent to the latter verb: as, " True phi- 
losophy, tvhich is the .ornament of our nature, consists more in 
the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than in great 
talents and extensive knowledge." 

A few instances of erroneous construction, will illustrate both 
the branches of the sixth rule. The three following refer to the 
first part. " How can we avoid being grateful to those whom, by 
repeated kind offices, have proved themselves our real friends !" 
" These are the men whom, you might suppose, were the authors 
of the work :" " If you were here, you would find three or four, 
whom you would say passed their time agreeably :" in all these 
places it should be who instead of whom. The two latter sen- 
tences contain a nominative between the relative and the verb ; 
and, therefore, seem to contravene the rule : but the student will 
reflect, that it is not the nominative of the verb with which the 
relative is connected. The remaining examples refer to the 
second part of the rule. "Men of fine talents are not always 
the persons who we should esteem." "The persons who you 
dispute with, are precisely of your opinion." " Our tutors are 
our benefactors, who we owe obedience to, and who we ought 
to love." In these sentences, ivhom should be used instead of who. 

1 When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the 
noun or pronoun containing the answer, must be in the same 
case as that which contains the question : as, " Whose books are 
these? They are John's." "Who gave them to him? We. 11 
* Of whom did you buy them ? Of a bookseller ; him who lives 
at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did you see there? Both 
him and the shopman." The learner will readily comprehend 
this rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the 
answers. — Thus, to express the answers at lar,ge, we should say 
" They are John's books." " We gave them to him." " We 
bought tbem of him who lives, &c" "We saw both him and 



.08 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule vii, vih. 

the shopman." — As the relative pronoun, when used interro- 
gatively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase containing the 
answer to the question, that word or phrase may properly be 
termed the subsequent to the interrogative. 

RULE VII. 

When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of dif- 
ferent persons, the relative and verb may agree in person 
with either, according to the sense : as, " I am the man 
who command you ;" or, " I am the man zvho commands you." 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences, expresses 
the meaning rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous 
to say ; " I, who command you, am the man." Perhaps the dif- 
ference of meaning, produced by referring the relative to differ- 
ent antecedents, will be more evident to the learner, in the fol- 
lowing sentences : " I am the general who gives the orders to- 
day ;" " I am the general, who give the orders to-day ;" that is, 
" I, who give the orders to-day, am the general." 

When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree 
with either of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must 
be preserved throughout the sentence ; as in the following in- 
stance : " I am the Lord that maketh all things ; that stretcheth 
forth the heavens alone." Isa. xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent : 
The Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, and the verb 
agrees with the relative in the third person: "I am the Lord, 
which Lord, or he that maketh all things." If I were made the 
antecedent, the relative and verb should agree with it in the 
first person : as, " /am the Lord, that make all things, that stretch 
forth the heavens alone." But should it follow ; " That spread- 
eth abroad the earth by myself;" there would arise a confusion 
of persons, and a manifest solecism. 

RULE VIII 

Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs to 
a substantive, expressed or understood : as, " He is a good, 
as well as a wise man ;" " Few are happy ;" that is, "per* 
sons :" " This is a pleasant walk ;" that is, " This walkis" &c 

Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with theii 
substantives : as, " This book, these books ; that sort, those 
*orts ; another road, other roads." 

I. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited. 
'■I have not travelled this twenty years;" " these twenty." "I 
am not recommending these kind of sufferings;" " this kind" 
*' Those set of books was a valuable present ;" u that set." 

1 The word means in the singular number, and the phrases 
' By this means," " By that means," are used by our best and most 
correct writers; namely. Baron, Tiilotson, Atterbury, Addison 



Rule viii.J SYNTAX 10* 

Steele, Pope, &c * They are, indeed, in so general and approved 
use, tnat it would appear awkward, if not affected, to apply the 
old singular form, and say, " By this mea.i ; .by that mean ; it 
was by a mean;" although it is more agreeable to the general 
analogy of the language. The word means (says Priestley) 
belongs to the class of words, which do not change their termina- 
tion on account of number ; for it is used alike in both numbers.'*' 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the following sen- 
tences: "Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation 
of his country ; and with this amends he was content." "Peace 
of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest." 
" In return, he received the thanks of his employers, and the pre- 
sent of a large estate : these were ample amends for all his la- 
bours." " We have described the rewards of vice : the good 
man's amends are of a different.nature." 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the 
word means) had formerly its correspondent form in the singular 
number, as it is derived from the French amende, though now it 
is exclusively established in the plural form. If, therefore, it be 
alleged, that mean should be applied in the singular, because it 
is derived from the French moyen, the same kind of argument 
may be advanced in favour of the singular amende ; and the gene- 
ral analogy of the language may also be pleaded in support of it. 

Campbell, in his "Philosophy of Rhetoric," has the following 

* " By this means , he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed 
with a long march." * Bacon 

" By this means quo, great restraint from doing evil, would be taken away." — 
11 And this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." — By that means 
they have rendered their duty more difficult." Tillotson. 

"It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means se- 
curing the continuance of his goodness." — " A good character, when established, 
ciiould not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further 
good." Atterbury, 

" By this means they are happy in each other." — " He by that means pre- 
serves his superiority." Addison. 

" Your vanity by this means will want its food." Stee{e. 

" By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope. 

" Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles." 

Dean Swift. 

" There is no means of escaping the persecution." " Faith is not only a 

means of obeying, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Young. 

*' He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing 
power." ' Lord LyttleUm's Henry II. 

" John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for his 
safety." Goldsmith. 

" Lest this means should fail." — "By means of ship-money, the late king," &c. 
-. " The only means of securing a durable peace." Hume. 

" By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," &c. 

Blackstone. 

" By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters." 

Dr. Robertson 

" By this means they bear witness to each other." Burke. 

" By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself." Dr. Blair. 

" A magazine, which has, by this means, contained, &c." — " Birds, in general, 
procure their food by means of their beak." Dr. Paley. 

K 



HC ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule vjiiv 

remark on the subject before us : "No persons of taste will, J 
presume, venture so far to violate the present usage, and conse- 
quently to shock the ears of the generality of readers, as to say, 
4 By this mean, by that -mean ' " 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in the 
singular number. They do not, however, speak decisively on 
the point; but rather dubiously, and as if they knew that they 
were questioning eminent authorities, as well as general prac- 
tice. That they were not decidedly against the application of 
this word to the singular number, appears from their own lan- 
guage : " Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may 
become members of other sentences by means of some additional 
connexion. 11 — Dr. Lowth's Introduction to English Grammar. 

44 There is no other method of teaching that of which any one 
is ignorant, but by means of something already known." — Dr. 
Johnson. Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures 
makes no use, as far as the compiler can discover, of the word 
mean ; though there are several instances to be found in it of the 
use of means, in the sense and connexion contended for. " By 
this means thou shalt have no portion on this side the river." 
Ezra iv. 16. " That by means of death, 1 ' &c. Heb. ix. 15. It will 
scarcely be pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes 
did not accurately understand the English language ; or that 
they would have admitted one form of this word, and rejected 
the other, had not their determination been conformable to the 
best usage. An attempt therefore to recover an old word, so 
long since disused by the most correct writers, seems not likely 
to be successful ; especially as the rejection of it is not attended 
with any inconvenience. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great 
majority of them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during 
its continuance, the standard of language; especially, if, in par- 
ticular instances, this practice continue, after objection and due 
consideration. Every connexion and application of words and 
phrases, thus supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled 
to respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 

" Si volet lisus 

" Quein penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi." HOR, 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating 
from the general analogy of the language, than those before men- 
tioned, are to be considered as strictly proper and justifiable. 
Of this kind are the following. " None of them are varied to 
express the gender ;" and yet none originally signified no one. 
44 He himself shall do the work :" here, what was at first appro- 
priated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative 
case. 44 You have behaved yourselves well :" in this example, 
the word you is put in the nominative case plural, with strict 
propriety ; though formerly it was confined to the objective case, 
and ye exclusively used for the nominative. 



Rulil vin. 1 } SYNTAX Hi 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus 
established, it is the grammarian's business to submit, not to re- 
monstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the decision of proper 
authority, and contending for obsolete modes of expression, he 
may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity ; and, in some 
degree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear and decided ; 
but he cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or 
to assist the learner, in discovering and respecting the true stand- 
ard and principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the 
grammarian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate 
on the ground of derivation, analogy, and propriety ; and his 
reasonings may refine and improve the language : but when 
authority speaks out and decides the point, it were perpetually 
to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and debate. Anoma- 
lies then, under the limiv '"ion mentioned, become the law, as 
clearly as the plainest analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the 
use of the word mean in the old form has a very uncouth appear- 
ance : " By the mean of adversity we are often instructed." 
" He preserved his health by mean of exercise." " Frugality is 
one mean of acquiring a competency." They should be, " Bv 
means of adversity," &c. "By means of exercise," &c. "Fri\ 
gality is one means, 11 &c. 

Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive mean iij 
the singular number, and in that number only, to signify medi. 
ocrity, middle rate, &c. as, "This is a mean between the twi 
extremes." But in the sense of instrumentality, it has bee$ 
long disused by the best authors, and by almost every writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when thej 
refer to what is singular ; these means and those means, when 
they respect plurals : as, " He lived temperately, and by thii 
means preserved his health;" "The scholars were attentive, 
industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; and by these means 
acquired knowledge." 

We have enlarged on this article, that the young student may 
be led to reflect on a point so important, as that of ascertaining 
the standard of propriety in the use of language. 

2 When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, 
and there is occasion to mention them again for the sake of 
distinction, that is used in reference to the former, and this, in 
reference to the latter: as, " Self-love, which is the spring ot 
action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for that, man would 
be inactive ; and but for this, he would be active to no end." 

o The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, agree 
with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular number 
only : as, " The king of Israel, and Jehcshaphat, the king of 
jfudah, sat each on his throne;" "Every tree is known, by its 
fruit:" unless the plural noun convey a collective idea: as, 
Every six months ;" " Ev-ery hundred years." The following 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule viii. 

phrases are exceptionable. " Let each esteem others better than 
themselves :" It ought to be " himself." " The language should 
be both perspicuous and correct : in proportion as either of these 
two qualities are wanting, the language is imperfect:' 7 it should 
be, " is wanting." " Every one of the letters bear regular dates, 
and contain proofs of attachment :" "bears a regular date, and 
contains." " Every town and village were burned ; every grove 
and every tree were cut down :" " was burned, and was cut 
down." See the Key, p. 16; and the Octavo Grammar, Second 
edition, volume 2, page 322. 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each : as, " TW 
king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat either of 
them on his throne;" " Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron., 
took either of them his censer." Each signifies both of them 
taken distinctly or separately ; either properly signifies only the 
one or the other of them taken disjunctively. 

In the course of this work, some examples will appear of erro- 
neous translations from the Holy Scriptures, with respect to 
grammatical construction : but it may be proper to remark, that 
notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, the Bible, for the size of 
it, is the most accurate grammatical composition that we have 
in the English language. The authority of several eminent 
grammarians might be adduced in support of this assertion : but 
it may be sufficient to mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, 
" The present translation of the Bible, is the best standard of the 
English language." 

II. ADJECTIVES. 

4 Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs : 
as, "Indifferent honest ; excellent well ; miserable poor*;" instead 
of " Indifferently honest ; excellently well ; miserably poor." 
" He behaved himself conformable to that great example ;" 
" conformably." " Endeavour to live hereafter suitable to a 
person in thy station ;" " suitably." " I can never think so very 
mean of him ;" "meanly." "He describes this river agreeable 
to the common reading;" "agreeably." "Agreeable to my 
promise, I now write ;" " agreeably." " Thy exceeding great 
reward:" When united to an adjective, or adverb not ending in 
ly, the word exceeding has ly added to it : as, " exceedingly dread- 
ful, exceedingly great;" "exceedingly well, exceedingly more 
active :" but when it is joined to an adverb or adjective, having 
that termination, the ly is omitted : as, " Some men think ex- 
ceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly :" " She appeared, 
on this occasion, exceeding lovely." " He acted in this business 
bolder than was expected :" " They behaved the noblest, because 
they were disinterested." They should have been, " more boldly; 
most nobly." — The adjective pronoun such is often misapplied: 
as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his 
whole patrimony in a few years :" it should be, "so extravagant 
a young man." "I never before saw su2h large trees:" " saiv 
trees so large." When we refer to the species or nature of a 



Rule viii.J SYNTAX. 113 

thing, the word such is properly applied : as, " Such a temper is 
seldom found:" but when degree is signified, we use the word 
so : as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives : as, "The 
tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his 
offence;" "suitable." " They were seen wandering about soli- 
tarily and distressed ;" " solitary" " He lived in a manner 
agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion ;" ■* agreeable ." 
" The study of syntax should be previously to that of punctua- 
tion ;" "previous. 1 '* 

5 Double cjomparatives and superlatives should be avoided : 
such as, " A worser conduct;" "On lesser hopes;" "A more 
serener temper;" " The most straitest sect ;" " A more superior 
work." They should be, " worse conduct ;" " less hopes ;" " a 
more serene temper ;" " the straitest sect ;" "a superior work." 

6 Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative significa- 
tion, do not properly admit of the superlative or comparative 
form superadded : such as, " Chief, extreme, perfect, right, uni- 
versal, supreme," &c. ; which are sometimes improperly written, 
" Chiefest, ^extremest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most 
supreme," &c. The following expressions are therefore im- 
proper. " He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices." 
"The quarrel became so universal and national;" " A method 
of attaining the rightest and greatest happiness." The phrases, 
so perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, &c. are incorrect; 
because they imply that one thing is less perfect, less extreme, 
&c. than another, which is not possible. 

7 Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the de- 
grees of comparison are applied and construed. The following 
are examples of wrong construction in this respect: "This no- 
ble nation hath, of all others, admitted fewer corruptions." 
The word fewer is here construed precisely as if it were the 
superlative. It should be, "This noble nation hath admitted 
fewer corruptions than any other." We commonly say, " This 
is the weaker of the two ;" or, " The weakest of the two :" but 
the former is the regular mode of expression, because there are 
only two things compared. "The vice of covetousness is what 
enters deepest into the soul of any other." " He celebrates the 
church of England as the most perfect of all others." Both 
these modes of expression are faulty : we should not say, " The 
best of any man," or, " The best of any other man," for " the 
best of men." The sentences may be corrected by substituting 
the comparative in the room of the superlative. " The vice, &c. 
is what enters deeper into the soul than any other." "He cele- 
brates, &c. as more perfect than any other." It is also possible 
to retain the superlative, and render the expression grammatical. 
" Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." 
" He celebrates, &c. as the most perfect of all churches." These 

* For the rule to determine whether an adjective or an adverb is to be use], 
see English exercises, Sixteenth, or anv subsequent edition, page 140. 

K2 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule vm. 

sentences contain other errors, against which it is proper to 
caution the learner. The words deeper and deepest, being in- 
tended for adverbs, should have been more deeply, most deeply. 
The phrases more perfect, and most perfect, are improper ; because 
perfection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say 
nearer or nearest to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

8 In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their 
substantives, even by words which modify their meaning, and 
make but one sense with them : as, " A large enough number 
surely." It should be, " A number large enough." " The lower 
sort of people are good enough judges of one not very distant 
from them." 

The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : as, "A 
generous man ;" " How amiable a woman !" The instances in 
which it comes after the substantive, are the following. 

1st, When something depends upon the adjective ; and when 
it gives a better sound, especially in poetry : as, "A man gene- 
rous to his enemies;" "Feed me with food convenient for me;" 
"A tree three feet thick" "A body of troops fifty thousand 
strong ;" " The torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt." 

2d, When the adjective is emphatical: as, " Alexander the 
Great;" "Lewis the Bold;" " Goodness infinite;" "Wisdom 
unsearchable" 

3d, When several adjectives belong to one substantive : as, 
" A man just, wise, and charitable ;" " A woman modest, sensi- 
ble, and virtuous." 

4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : as, " A 
boy regularly studious ;" " A girl unaffectedly modest." 

5th, When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes be- 
tween a substantive and an adjective, the adjective may fre- 
quently either precede or follow it: as, " The man is happy; or, 
happy is the man who makes virtue his choice :" u The interview 
was delightful ;" or, " delightful was the interview." 

6th, When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a 
substantive placed after an active verb : as, "Vanity often ren- 
ders its possessor despicable." In an exclamatory sentence, the 
adjective generally precedes the substantive : as, "How despica- 
ble does vanity often rendej* its possessor !" 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing 
the adjective before the verb, and the substantive immediately 
after it : as, u Great is the Lord ! just and true are thy ways, 
thou King of saints!" 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of 
particulars comprehended under it. "Ambition, interest, ho- 
nour, all concurred." Sometimes a substantive, which likewise 
comprehends the preceding particulars, is used in conjunction 
with this adjective : as, " Royalists, republicans, churchmen, 
sectaries, courtiers, patriots, all parties, concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes 



Rule ix.J SYNTAX. J 15 

properly associate with a singular noun : as, " Our desire, your 
intention, their resignation." This association applies rather to 
things of an intellectual nature, than to those which are corpo- 
real. It forms an exception to the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compound- 
ed word, whence they often take another adjective, and some- 
times a third, and so on : as, " An old man ; a good old man ; a 
very learned, judicious, good old man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in 
many instances, put as if it were absolute ; especially where the 
noun has been mentioned before, oris easily understood, though 
not expressed : as, "I often survey the green fields, as I am very 
fond of green;" "The wise, the virtuous, the honoured, famed, 
and great," that is, " persons ;" "The twelve," that is, " anos- 
ues ;" " Have compassion on the poor ; be feet to the lame, and 
eyes to the blind." 

Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this case, the 
word so used is sometimes unconnected with the substantive to 
which it relates ; sometimes connected with it by a hyphen ; and 
sometimes joined to it, so as to make the two words coalesce. 
The toittl separation is proper, when either of the two words is 
long, 01 when they cannot be fluently pronounced as one word : 
as, an a<\j*t£tive pronoun, a silver watch, a stone cistern : the hy- 
phen is used, when both the words are short, and are readily 
pronounced as a single word : as, coal-mine, corn-mill, fruit-tree : 
the words coalesce, when they are readily pronounced together; 
have a long established association ; and are in frequent use : 
as, honeycomb, gingerbread, inkhorn, Yorkshire. 

Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has ano- 
ther adjective joined to it: as, "The chief good ;" " The vast 
immense of spa^e." 

When an adjective has a preposition before it, the substan- 
tive being understood, it takes the nature of an adverb, and is 
considered as aw adverb: as, ^Tn general, in particular, in 
jkaste," &c. ; that is, " Generally, particularly, hastily." 

Enow was fonwrly used as the plural of enough : but it is now 
obsolete. 

RULE IX. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular 
number only, inatvidually or collectively : as, * A christian, 
an infidel, a scoi^, a thousand." The definite article the 
may agree with kiouns in the singular and plural number; 
as, " The garden, the houses, the stars." 

The articles aie often properly omitted : when used, they 
should be justly applied, according to their distinct nature : 
as, " Gold is corrupting ; the sea is green ; a lion is bold " 

It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or limit 
the thing spoken of. A determines it to be one single thing of 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule ix 

the kind, leaving it still uncertain which: the determines which 
it is ; or of many, which they are. 

The following passage will serve as an example of the differ- 
ent uses of a and the, and of the force of the substantive without 
any article. " Man was made for society, and ought to extend 
his good will to all men : but a man will naturally entertain a 
more particular kindness for the men, with whom he nas tne 
most frequent intercourse ; and enter into a still closer union with 
the man whose temper and disposition suit best with his own." 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some 
use to exhibit a few instances: " And I persecuted this way unto 
the death." The apostle does not mean any particular sort oi 
death, but death in general : the definite article therefore is im- 
properly used : it ought to be "unto death,'' without any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into 
ail truth ;" that is, according to this translation, " into all truth 
whatsoever, into truth of all kinds ;" very different from the 
meaning of the evangelist, and fj om the original, "into all the 
truth;" that is, "into all evangelical truth, all truth necessary 
for you to know." 

" Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to be " the 
wheel," used as an instrument foi the particular purpose of tor- 
turing criminals. " The Almighty hath given reason to a man 
to be a light unto him :" it should rather be, " to man" in gene- 
ral, "This day is salvation come to this house, forasmuch as he 
also is the son of Abraham :" it ought to be, "a son of Abraham." 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the 
proper use of the article, and the excellence of the English lan- 
guage in this respect ; which, by means of its two articles, does 
most precisely determine the extent of signification of common 
names. 

1 A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the 
use or omission of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a 
little reverence ;" my meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved 
with little reverence ;" my meaning is negative. And these two 
are by no means the same, or to be used in the same cases. By the 
former, I rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. 
For the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we* 
may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a before 
nouns of number. When I say, "There were few men with 
him ;" I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as in 
considerable : whereas, when I say ; " There were a few men 
with him ;" I evidently intend to make the most of them. 

2 In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the 
former of two words in the same construction ; though the 
French never fail to repeat it in this case. 

"There were many hours, both of the night and day, which 
he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It 
might have been " of the night and of the day." And, for the 
sake of emphasis, we often repeat the article in a series of epi- 



Rule x.] SYNTAX. 117 

thets. " He hoped that this title would secure him an ample and 
an independent authority." 

3 In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequent- 
ly omit the articles, which might be inserted with propriety in 
writing, especially in a grave style. " At worst, time might be 
gained by this expedient." "At the worst," would have been 
better in this place. " Give me here John Baptist's head." 
There would have been more dignity in saying, " John the Bap- 
tist's head :" or, " The head of John the Baptist." 



The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a 
person by an epithet. " In the history of Henry the fourth, by 
Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great 
man." "I own I am often surprised that he should have treat- 
ed so coldly, a man so much the gentleman." 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the 
French, for the pronoun possessive: as, " He looks him full in 
the face ;" that is, " in his face." " Tn his presence they were 
to strike the forehead on the ground ;" that is, " their foreheads. 11 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the 
same article, when the adjective, on account of any clause de- 
pending upon it, is put after the substantive. "Of all the consi 
derable governments among the Alps, a commonwealth is a con- 
stitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of those coun- 
tries." " With such a specious title as that of blood, which with 
the multitude is always a claim, the strongest, and the most easily 
comprehended." " They are not the men in the nation the most 
difficult to be replaced." 

RULE X. 

One substantive governs another, signifying a different 
thing, in the possessive or genitive case : as, " My fathers 
house;" " Man's happiness ;" " Virtue's reward." 

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the 
first, there is no variation of case: as, " George, king of Great 
Britain, elector of Hanover," &c. ; " Pompey contended with 
CfEsar, the greatest general of his time ;" "Religion, the support 
of adversity, adorns prosperity." Nouns thus circumstanced 
are said to be in apposition to each other. The interposition ot 
a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction : as, 
" Pompey contended with Caesar, who was the greatest general 
of his time." Here the word general is in the nominative case, 
governed by note 4, under Rule xt. 

The preposition of joined to a substantive, is not always equi 
valent to the possessive case. It is only so, wnen the expression 
can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case. 
We can say, "The reward of virtue," and "Virtue's reward :" 
but though it is proper to say, "A crown of gold," we cannot 
convert the expression into the possessive case, and say, " Gold's 
crown." 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule x 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the posses- 
sive case : as, " Every tree is known by its fruit ;" " Goodness 
brings its reward ;" " That desk is mine" 

The genitive its is often improperly used for His or it is ; as, 
"Tts my book:" instead of " It is my book." 

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it 
relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as 
the genitive case of the personal pronoun : as, " This composition 
is his" "Whose book is that?" u His." If we used the noun 
itself, we should say, " This composition is John's." " Whose book 
is that ?" " Eliza's." The position will be still more evident, 
when we consider that both the pronouns in the following sen- 
tences must have a similar construction : " Is it her or his honour 
that is tarnished ?" " It is not hers, but his" 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case 
stands alone, the latter one by which it is governed being un- 
derstood : as, " I called at the bookseller's," that is, " at the 
bookseller's shop" 

1 If several nouns come together in the genitive case, the 
apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and understood to the 
rest: as, "John and Eliza's books:" "This was my father, 
mother, and uncle's advice." But when any words intervene, 
perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign of the 
possessive should be annexed to each : as, " They are John's as 
well as Eliza's books;" "I had the physician's, the surgeon's, 
and the apothecary's assistance." 

2 In poetry, the additional 5 is frequently omitted, but the 
apostrophe retained, in .the same manner as in substantives of 
the plural number ending in s: as, "The wrath of Peleus' son." 
This seems not so allowable in prose ; which the following erro- 
neous examples will demonstrate: "Moses' minister;" "Phine- 
has' wife ;" "Festus came into Felix' room." " These answers 
were made to the witness' questions." But in cases which would 
give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty oi 
pronunciation, the omission takes place even in prose : as, " Foi 
righteousness' sake;" "For conscience' sake." 

3 Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward 
between a genitive case, and the word which usually follows it. 
as, " She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent 
understanding." It ought to be, "the excellent understanding 
of the farmer, as she called him." 

4 When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and 
an office, or of any expressions by which one part is descriptive 
or explanatory of the other, it may occasion some doubt to which 
of them the sign of the genitive case should be annexed ; or 
whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, some 
would say; " I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller ;" others, 
" at Smith the bookseller's ;" and perhaps others, " at Smith's 
the bookseller's." The first of these forms is most agreeable to 
the English idiom ; and if the addition consists of two or more 






Rule x.. SYNTAX. 119 

words, the case seems to be less dubious : as, " I left the parcel 
at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." But as this subject 
requires a little further explanation to make it intelligible to the 
learners, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its 
principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, 
as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily re- 
quires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase : as, 

Whose prerogative is it ? It is the king of Great Britain's ;" 
"That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of 
LandafT's excellent book ;" "The lord mayor of London's au- 
thority ;" " The captain of the guard's house." 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succes- 
sion, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign 
of the genitive a similar situation ; especially if the noun which 
governs the genitive be expressed : as, " The emperor Leo- 
pold's ;" " Dionysius the tyrant's ;" " For David my servant's 
sake ;" " Give me John the Baptists head ;" " Paul the apostle's 
advice." But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun 
not expressed ; and when the latter part of the sentence is ex- 
tended ; it appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied 
to the first genitive, and understood to the other; as, " I reside 
at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor ;" " Whose 
glory did he emulate ? He emulated Ceesar's, the greatest general 
of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very 
awkward to place the sign, either at the end of each of the 
clauses, or at the end of the latter one alone : " These psalms 
^•re David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people ;" 
4 We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his 
^•luntry, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of the genitive 
«uvse inay very properly be understood at the end of these mem 
bers, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being a common 
construction in our language; as the learner will see by one or 
iwo examples : "They wished to submit, but he did not ;" that 
is, " he did not wish to submit ;" " He said it was their concern, 
but not his;" that is, u not his concern" 

li we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last 
clause only, we shall perceive that a resting place is wanted, 
and that the connecting circumstance i£ placed too remotely 
to oe either perspicuous or agreeable : as, " Whose glory did he 
emulate?" "He emulated Ca3sar, the greatest general of anti 
quilifs ,*" "These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet 
of tne Jewish people's." It is much better to say, "This is 
Pauts advice, the Christian hero, and great apostle of the gen- 
tiles," than, "This is Paul the Christian hero, and great apostle 
of the gentiles' 1 advice." On the other hand, the application of 
the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would 
be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases 
incorrect : as, " The emperor's Leopold's ;" " King's George's ;" 
" Charles' the second's ;" " The parcel was left at Smith's the 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule x. 

bookseller's and stationer's." The rules which we have endea- 
voured to elucidate, will prevent the inconvenience of both these 
modes of expression ; and they appear to be simple, perspicuous, 
and consistent with the idiom of the language. 

5 The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so 
that we daily make more use of the particle of to express the 
same relation. There is something awkward in the following 
sentences, in which this method has not been taken. " The 
general, in the army's name, published a declaration." "The 
commons' vote." "The lords' house." "Unless he is very 
ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were certainly better 
to say, " In the name of the army ;" " The vote of the commons ;" 
" The house of lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." It is 
also rather harsh to use two English genitives with the same 
substantive : as, " Whom he acquainted with the pope's and 
the king's pleasure." " The pleasure of the pope and the king,' 
would have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one 
another, and connected by the preposition of applied to each of 
them : as, " The severity of the distress of the son of the king, 
touched the nation ;" but this mode of expression is not to be 
recommended. It would be better to say, " The severe distress 
of the king's son, touched the nation." We have a striking 
instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the following 
sentence : " Of some of the books of each of these classes of 
literature, a catalogue will be given at the end of the work." 

6 In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the 
preposition of: as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." 
Sometimes indeed, unless we throw the sentence into another 
form, this method is absolutely necessary, in order to distinguish 
the sense, and to give the idea of property, strictly so called, 
which is the most important of the relations expressed by the 
genitive case : for the expressions, " This picture of my friend," 
and "This picture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. 
The latter only is that of property in the strictest sense. The 
idea would, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, by saying, 
" This picture belonging to my friend." 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is 
not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave 
style, it is generally omitted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it 
seems to be allowable only in cases which suppose the existence 
of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In the expressions, 
" A subject of the emperor's ;" " A sentiment of my brother's ; ' 
more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong 
to the possessor. But when this plurality is neither intimated, 
nor necessarily supposed, the double genitive, except as before 
mentioned, should not be used : as, " This house of the governor 
is very commodious;" " The crown of the king was stolen ; ,f 
" That privilege of the scholar was never abused." (See page 
40.) But after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it 






Uule xi.] SYNTAX. 121 

is termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to 
avoid the use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another 
form of expression. 

7 When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a 
participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express 
one idea or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be 
put in the genitive case ; thus, instead of saying, u What is the 
reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily?" that is, 
" What is the reason of this person in dismissing his servant so 
hastily ?" we may say, and perhaps ought to say, " What is the 
reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily ?" 
Just as we say, " What is the reason of this person's hasty dis- 
mission of his servant ?" So also, we say, " I remember it 
being reckoned a great exploit ;" or more properly, " I remember 
its being reckoned," &c. The following sentence is correct and 
proper : " Much will depend on the pupiV s composing, but more on 
his reading frequently." It would not be accurate to say, " Much 
will depend on the pupil composing ," &c. We also properly 
say ; " This will be the effect of the pupiVs composing frequently ;" 
instead of, " Of the pupil composing frequently." 

RULE XI. 

Active verbs govern the objective case : as, " Truth en- 
nobles her; 1 "She comforts me;" "They support us"; 
" Virtue rewards her followers!* 

In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually 
goes before the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the ob- 
ject, follows the verb active ; and it is the order that determines 
the case in nouns ; as, "Alexander conquered the Persians." Bat 
the pronoun having a proper form for each of those cases, is some- 
times, when it is in the objective case, placed before the verb ; 
and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb; 
as, " Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper 
case and government to be neglected : as In the following in- 
stances: "Who should I esteem more than the wise and good?" 
" By the character of those who you choose for your friends, 
your own is likely to be formed." " Those are the persons who 
he thought true to his interests." " Who should I see the other 
day but my old friend." " Whosoever the court favours." In 
all these places it ought to be whom, the relative being governed 
in the objective case by the verbs " esteem, choose, thought," 
&c. " He, who under all proper circumstances, has the boldness to 
speak truth, choose for thy friend :" It should be " him who," &c. 
Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pronouns. 
"He sleeps; they muse" &c. are not transitive. They are, 
therefore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object 
of an action. But when this case or an object of action, comes 
after such verbs, though it may carry the appearance of being go 
6 L 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xi. 

verned by them, it is affected by a preposition or some other 
word understood: as, "He resided many years [that is, for or 
during many years] in that street ;" " He rode several miles [that 
is, for or through the space of several miles] on that day ;" " He 
lay an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In the 
phrases, " To dream a dream," "To live a virtuous life," "To run 
a race," " To walk the horse," " To dance the child," the verba 
certainly assume a transitive form, and may not, in these cases 
be improperly denominated transitive verbs. 

1 Some writers, however, use certain neuter verbs as if they 
were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably 
to the French construction of reciprocal verbs; but this custom 
is so foreign to the idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not 
to be adopted or imitated. The following are some instances o£ 
this practice. " Repenting him of his design." " The king soon 
found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous ene- 
mies." " The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on 
the subject." " The nearer his successes approached him to the 
throne." " Go Jlee thee away into the land of Judah." " I think 
it by no means a fit and decent thing to vie charities," &c. " They 
have spent their whole time and pains to* agree the sacred with 
the profane chronology." 

2 Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter : as, 
" I must premise with three circumstances." "Those that think 
to ingratiate ivith him by calumniating me." 

3 The neuter verb is varied like the active ; but, having in 
some degree the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, 
of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly 
in such verbs as signify some sort of motion, or change of place 
or condition : as, " I am come ; I was gone ; I am grown ; I was 
fallen." The following examples, however, appear to be errone- 
ous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an ac- 
tive one. " The rule of our holy religion, from which we are in- 
finitely swerved." " The whole obligation of that law and cove- 
nant was also ceased" Whose number was now amounted to 
three hundred." "This mareschal, upon some discontent, was 
entered into a conspiracy against his master." " At the end of a 
campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed." It should 
be, " have swerved, had ceased," &c. 

4 The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case 
after it, as that which next precedes it: "/ am he whom they 
invited;" " It may be (or might have been) he, but it cannot be 
(or could not have been) /;" " It is impossible to be they ;" "It 
seems to have been he, who conducted himself so wisely ;" "It 
appeared to be she that transacted the business ;" " I understood 
it to be him;" " I believe it to have been them;" "We at first 
took it to be her ; but w T ere afterward convinced that it was not 
she" "He is not the person who it seemed he was." "He is 
really the person who he appeared to be." " She is not now 
the woman whom they represented her to have been." " Whom 



Rule xii.J SYNTAX. 123 

do you fancy him to be ?" By these examples, it appears that 
this substantive verb has no government of case, but serves, in 
all its forms, as a conductor to the ^ases ; so that the two cases 
which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before 
and after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be 
more intelligible to the learner, by observing, that the words h\ 
the cases preceding and following the verb to be, may be said 10 
be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, " I un- 
derstood it to be him," the words it and him are in apposition : 
that is, " they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case." 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and 
exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case : u It might have been him, 
but there is no proof of it ;" " Though I was blamed, it could 
not have been me ;" " I saw one whom I took to be she ;" " She 
is the person who I understood it to have been ;" " Who do you 
think me to be ?" " Whom do men say that I am ?'' " And 
whom think ye that I am ?" — See the Octavo Grammar. 

Passive verbs which signify naming, &c. have the same case 
before and after them : as, " He was called Caesar ; She was 
named Penelope ; Homer is styled the prince of poets ; James 
was created a duke ; The general was saluted emperor ; The 
professor was appointed tutor to the prince." 

5 The auxiliary let governs the objective case : as, " Let him 
beware ;" " Let us judge candidly ;" " Let them not presume ;" 
" Let George study his lesson." 

RULE XII. 

One verb governs another that follows it, or depends upon 
it, in the infinitive mood : as, " Cease to do evil ; learn to do 
well ;" " We should be prepared to render an account of 
our actions." 

The preposition to, though generally used before the lat- 
ter verb, is sometimes properly omitted : as, " I heard him 
say it ; ' instead of " to say it." 

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them 
in the infinitive mood, without the sign to, are Bid, dare, need, 
make, see, hear, feel ; and also, let, not used as an auxiliary ; and 
perhaps a few others : as, " I bade him do it ;" " Ye dare not do 
it;" "I saw him do it ;" '* I heard him say it;" " Thou lettest 
him go." 

1 In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infini- 
tive mood, where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is su- 
perfluous and improper. " I have observed some satirists to use," 
&c. " To see so many to make so little conscience of so great 
a sin." " It.cannot but be a delightful spectacle to God and an- 
gels, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temptations on 
every side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out 
against the most violent assaults ; to behold one in the prime 
and flower of his age, that is courted bv pleasures and honours, 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xi». 

by the devil, and all the bewitching vanities of the world, to re- 
ject all these, and to cleave steadfastly unto God." 

This mood has also been improperly used in the following 
places: "I am not like other men, to envy the talents I cannot 
reach." " Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, them 
to be genuine ;" " That all our doings may be ordered by thy 
governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight." 



The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substan- 
tives, and participles : as, " He is eager to learn ;" " She is wor- 
thy to be loved ;" " They have a desire to improve ;" Endeavour- 
ing to persuade." 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, 
expressing the action itself which the verb signifies, as the parti- 
ciple has the nature of an adjective. Thus the infinitive mood 
does the office of a substantive in different cases : in the nomi- 
native: as, " To play is pleasant:'' in the objective : as, " Boys 
love to play ;" " For to ivill is present with me ; but to perforin 
that which is good, I find not." 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used indepen- 
dently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the 
conjunction that with the potential mood : as, " To confess the 
truth, I was in fault ;" " To begin with the first ;" " To pro- 
ceed ;" " To conclude ;" that is, " That I may confess," &c. 

RULE XIII. 

In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, 
relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be 
observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord hath given, and 
the Lord hath taken away ;" we should say, " The Lord 
gdve, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead of, " I remem- 
ber the family more than twenty years ;" it should be, " I 
have remembered the family more than twenty years." 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of 
the moods and tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so 
that they may be proper and consistent. The best rule that can 
be given, is this very general one : '• To observe what the sense 
necessarily requires." It may, however, be of use to give a few 
examples of irregular construction. " The last week I intended 
to have written" is a very common phrase ; the infinitive being 
Sri the past time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is 
certainly wrong ; for how long soever it now is since I thought 
of writing, " to write" was then present to me, and must still be 
considered as present, when I bring back that time, and the 
thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, " The -last week I 
intended to write." The following sentences are also erroneous : 
" I cannot excuse the remissness of those whose business it 
should have been, as it certainly was their interest, to have in- 
terposed their good offices." " There were two circumstances 



Kui,e xiii.] SYNTAX. 125 

which made it necessary for them to have lost no time." " His- 
tory painters would have found it difficult to have invented sucn. 
a species of beings." They ought to he, " to interpose, to lose, to 
invent." " On the morrow, because he should have known the 
certainty, wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he loosed him." 
It ought to be, " because he would know" or rather, " being 
willing to know" 

" The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive my 
sight." " If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection 
of the dead ;" " may" in both places, would have been better. 
" From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Scriptures 
with great attention ;" " to have studied" &c. "I feared that I 
should have lost it, before I arrived at t'he city ;" "should lose it." 
" I had rather walk ;" It should be, " I would rather walk." " It 
would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it :" 
it should be, " if I could have performed it ;" or, " It would afford 
me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must re- 
collect that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect 
tenses often carry with them a future sense ; and that the aux- 
iliaries should and would, in the imperfect times, are used to ex- 
press the present and future as well as the past : for which see 
page 59. 

1 It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infinitive 
mood in the following form ; " to write," " to be writing," and 
" to be written," always denote something contemporary with the 
time of the governing verb, or subsequent to it: but when verbs 
of that mood are expressed as follows ; " To have been writing," 
" to have written," and " to have been written," they always 
denote something antecedent to the time of the governing verb. 
This remark is thought to be of importance ; for if duly attended 
to, it will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative 
application of these tenses. 

The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed : 
" I found him better than I expected to find him." " Expected 
to have found him," is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to 
sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, 
or command, must invariably be followed by the present, and 
not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive 
an error in this expression ; "It is long since I commanded him 
to have done it :" Yet " expected to have found" is no better. \i 
is as clear that the finding must be posterior to the expectation, 
as that the obedience must be posterior to the command. 

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put 
in the perfect tense of the infinitive mood; "It would have 
afforded me great plea-sure, as often as I reflected upon it, fo have 
been the messenger of such intelligence." As the message, in 
this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, and not contem- 
porary with it, the verb expressive of the message must denote 
that antecedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If 

L2 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rum xiif. 

the message and the pleasure had been referred to as contem- 
porary, the subsequent verb would, with equal propriety, have 
been put in the present of the infinitive: as, "It would have 
afforded me great pleasure, to be the messenger of such intelli- 
gence." In the former instance, the phrase in question i? equi- 
valent to these words ; " If I had been the messenger ;" in the 
latter instance, to this expression; "Being the messenger " — 
For a further discussion of this subject, see the Eleventh edition 
of the Key to the Exercises, p. 60, and the Octavo Grammar, 
Rule xiii. 

It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the 
past time with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infini- 
tive must always be used : as, " He ought to have done it." When 
we use this verb, this is the only possible way to distinguish the 
past from the present. 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can 
produce the sentiments of eminent grammarians; amongst whom 
are Lowth and Campbell. But there are some writers on 
grammar, who strenuously maintain, that the governed verb in 
the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when the verb which 
governs it, is in the past time. Though this cannot be admitted, 
in the instances which are controverted under this rule, or in 
any instances of a similar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, 
in many cases, in which the thing referred to preceded the go- 
verning verb, it would be proper and allowable. We may say , 
" From a conversation I once had with him, he appeared to have 
studied Homer with great care and judgment." It would be 
proper also to say, " From his conversation, he appears to have 
studied Homer with great care and judgment ;" " That unhappy 
man is supposed to have died by violence." These examples are 
not only consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate 
it. It is the tense of the governing verb only, that marks what 
is called the absolute time ; the tense of the verb governed, 
marks solely its relative time with respect to the other. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood 
have no tenses, no relative distinctions of present, p^st, and 
future, is inconsistent with just grammatical views of th<* .subject. 
That these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof 
of their having no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period 
the governing verb assumes, whether present, past, or future, 
the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period 
and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of tb --.* infini- 
tive may be before, after-, or the same as, the time of ibe go 
yerning verb, according as the thing signified by the infinitive 
is supposed to be before, after, or present with, the thing denoted 
by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great propriety, 
that tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The 
point of time from which they are computed, is of no consequence ; 
since present, past, and future, are completely applicable to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by re 






Rule xiv.J SYNTAX. 127 

marking, that though it is often proper to use the perfect of the 
infinitive after the governing verb, yet there are particular cases, 
in which it would be better to give the expression a different 
form. Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to have written to him 
sooner," " I then wished to have written to him sooner," " He 
will one day wish to have written sooner;" it would be more 
perspicuous and forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice 
of good writers, to say ; " I wish that I had written to him 
sooner," " I then wished that I had written to him sooner," " He 
will one day wish that he had written sooner." Should the 
justness of these strictures be admitted, there would still be 
numerous occasions for the use of the past infinitive ; as we may 
perceive by a few examples. " It would ever afterwards have 
been a source of pleasure to have found him wise and virtuous." 
"To have deferred his repentance longer, would have disqualified 
him for repenting at all." " They will then see, that to have 
faithfully performed their duty, would have been their greatest 
consolation."* 

RULE XIV. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs have 
from which they are derived : as, " I am weary with hear- 
ing him ;" " She is instructing us ;" " The tutor is admo« 
nishing Charles. 11 

1 Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the 
present participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a 
substantive, and must have the preposition of after it : as, " These 
are the rules of grammar, by the observing of which, you may 
avoid mistakes." It would not be proper to say, " by the ob- 
serving which ;" nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrase, 
without either article or preposition, would be right : as, " by ob- 
serving which." The article a or an, has the same effect : as, 
"This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him." 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, 
and from as plain a principle as any on which it is founded ; 
namely, that a word which has the article before it, and the pos- 
sessive preposition of after it, must be a noun : and, if a noun, it 
ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to have the 
regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort 
of words that is apt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if 
they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly 
verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule 
"He was sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance :" 
it ought to be, " by the preaching of repentance ;" or, " by 
preaching repentance." 6; By the continual mortifying our cor- 
rupt affections ;" it should be, " by the continual mortifying q/*," 

* See Key to the English Exercises, Eleventh Edit. Rule xiii. The Note 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xiv. 

or. M by continually mortifying our corrupt affections." " They 
laid out themselves towards the advancing and promoting the 
good of it ;" " towards advancing and promoting the good." u Jt 
is an overvaluing ourselves, to reduce every tiling to the narrow 
measure of our capacities ;" "it is overvaluing ourselves," or, "an 
overvaluing q/*ourselves." " Keeping of one day in seven," &c. : 
it ought to be, " the keeping of one day ;" or, " keeping one day." 
A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle 
end the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in every in- 
stance, convey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the 
participle without the article and preposition. " He expressed 
the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher," is capa- 
ble of a different sense from, "He expressed the pleasure he had 
in hearing the philosopher." When, therefore, we wish, for the 
sake of harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseolo 
gies for the other, we should previously consider whether they 
are perfectly similar in the sentiments they convey. 

2 The same observations which have been made respecting 
the effect of the article and participle, appear to be applicable to 
the pronoun and participle, when they are similarly associated : as, 
' Much depends on their observing of the rule, and error will be 

the consequence of their neglecting of it," instead of "their oh- 
serving the rule, and their neglecting it." We shall perceive this 
more clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun : as, "Much 
depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule," &c. But, as this 
construction sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be bet- 
ter to express the sentiment in the following, or some other form : 
" Much depends on the rule's being observed ; and error will be 
the consequence of its being neglected :" or — " on observing the 
rule; and — of neglecting it." This remark may be applied to 
several other modes of expression to be found in this work : 
which,-though they are contended for as strictly correct, are not 
always the most eligible, on account of their unpleasant sound. 
See pages 40, 55, 118—121. 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : "In 
forming of his sentences, he was very exact ;" " From calling oj 
names, he proceeded to blows." But this is incorrect language ; 
for prepositions do not, like articles and pronouns, convert the 
participle itself into the nature of a substantive; as we have 
shown above in the phrase, " By observing which."' And yet 
the participle with its adjuncts, maybe considered as a substan- 
tive phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition or 
verb, expressed or understood : as, " By promising much, and 
performing but little, we become despicable." " He studied to 
avoid expressing himself too severely" 

3 As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are some- 
times different in their form, care must be taken that they be not 
indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, " He begun," for 
"he began;" "he run," for "he ran;" "He drunk," for "he 
drank;" the participle being here used instead of the imperfect 



Rule xv. ] SYNTAX. 1<& 

tense : and much more frequently the imperfect tense instead of 
the participle : as, " I had wrote," for " I had written :" "I was 
chose," for, " 1 was chosen ;" " I have eat," for, " I have eaten." 
" His words were interwove with sighs ;" " were interwoven." 
" He would have spoke ;" " spoken. v " He hath bore witness to 
his faithful servants ;" " borne." " By this means he over-run his 
• guide ;" " over-ran." " The sun has rose ;"- " risen." " His con- 
stitution has been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be 
shook by such causes ;" " shaken" in both places. " They were 
verses wrote on glass ;" " written." "Philosophers have often 
mistook the source of true happiness :" it ought to be u mistaken. ' 
The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by 
changing ecHnto t ; as, "In good behaviour, he is not surpast by 
any pupil of. the school." " She was much distrest." They 
ought to be " surpassed" " distressed." 

RULE XV. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, 
&c. require an appropriate situation in the sentence, viz. 
for the most part, before adjectives, after verbs active 01 
neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb: 
as, "He made a very sensible discourse ; he spoke unaffect- 
edly and forcibly, and was attentively heard by the whole 
assembly." 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve 
to illustrate the rule. " He must not expect to find study agree- 
able always ;" " always agreeable." " We always find them 
ready when we want them;" "we find them always ready," 
&c. " Dissertations on the prophecies which have remarkably 
been fulfilled ;" " which have been remarkably." " Instead of 
looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, 
we should look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better ;" 
"instead of looking down contemptuously, &c. we should thank- 
fully look up" &c. " If thou art blessed naturally with a good 
memory, continually exercise it ;" " naturally blessed" &c. " ex- 
ercise it continually." 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the 
verb, or at some distance after it ; sometimes between the two 
auxiliaries ; and sometimes after them both ; as in the following 
examples. "Vice always creeps by degrees, and insensibly 
twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we are at 
last completely bound." "He encouraged the English Barons to 
carry their opposition farther." " They compelled him to de- 
clare that he would abjure the realm for ever ;" instead of, " to 
carry farther their opposition ;" and " to abjure for ever the 
realm." " He has generally been reckoned an honest man." 
" The book may always be had at such a place ;" in preference 
to " has been generally ," and " may be always." " These 
6* 



*0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xv 

- ies will be clearly understood, after they have been diligently 
nxdied," are preferable to, " These rules will clearly be under- 
/cod, after they have diligently been studied." 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no 
xact and d-eterminate rule can be given for the placing of ad- 
erbs, on all occasions. The general rule may be of considerable 
lse ; but the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase, are the 
hings which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word 
that adds nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the 
verb and the nominative noun : as, " There is a person at the 
door;" " There are some thieves in the house ;" which would 
be as well, or better, expressed by saying, " A person is at the 
door ;" " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it is made 
use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence : as, 
'' There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." 
When it is applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the 
verb and the nominative case : as, " The man stands there" 

1 The adverb never generally precedes the verb : as, " I never 
was there ;" " He never comes at a proper time." When an 
auxiliary is used, it is placed indifferently, either before or after 
this adverb : as, " He was never seen (or never was seen) to 
iaugh from that time." 

Never seems to be improperly used in the following passages. 
u Ask me never so much dowry and gift." " If I make my 
hands never so clean." " Charm he never so wisely." The 
word "ever" would be more suitable to the sense. 

2 In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where, 
is often used instead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. 
w They framed a protestation, where they repeated all their for- 
mer claims ;" i. e. " in which they repeated." " The king was 
still determined to run forwards, in the same course where he was 
already, by his precipitate career, too fatally advanced;" i. e. 
" in which he was." But it would be better to avoid this mode 
of expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition ; 
for they signify, u from this place, from that place, from what 
place." It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper co 
join a preposition with them, because it is superfluous: as, 
" This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of our age are said 
to borrow their weapons ;" u An ancient author prophesies from 
hence." But the origin of these words is little attended to, and 
the preposition from so often used in construction with them, that 
the omission of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disa- 
greeable. 

The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to 
verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, 
whither: as, " He came here hastily ;" " They rode herewith 
speed." They should be, " He came hither;" " They roda 
thither" &c. 



Rule xvi, xvn.j SYNTAX. 131 

3 We have some examples of adverbs being used for substan- 
tives : " In 1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, 
since when, it has begun to increase in those countries as a reli- 
gious order ;" i. e. " since which time." " A little while and I shall 
not see you ;" i. e. u a short time" " It is worth their while ;" 
i. e. " it deserves their time and pains." But this use of the word 
rather suits familiar than grave style. The same may be said 
of the phrase, " To do a thing anyhow;" i. e. " in any manner ;" 
or, " somehow ;" i. e. " in some manner." " Somehow, worthy 
as these people are, they are under the influence of prejudice.'* 

RULE XVL 

Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are 
equivalent to an affirmative: as, " JVbrdid they not perceive 
him;" that is, "they did perceive him." "His language, 
though inelegant, is not ungrammaiical f that is, " it is 
grammatical." 

It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular affirmative, 
than by two separate negatives, as in the former sentence : but 
when one of the negatives is joined to another word, as in the lat- 
ter sentence, the two negatives form a pleasing and dedicate va- 
riety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead 
of one; as in the following instances: " I never did repent of 
doing good, nor shall not now ;" " nor shall I now." " Never no 
imitator grew up to his author;" "never did any" &c. u I can- 
not by no means allow him what his argument must prove ;" 
" I cannot by any means," &c. or, " I can by no means." u Nor 
let no comforter approach me ;" " nor let any comforter," &c. 
" Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more 
than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or earth- 
quakes ;" it should be, "anymore." " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, 
no more than Raphael, were not born in republics." " Neither 
Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born 
in a republic." 

RULE XVII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case : as, "I have 
heard a good character of her ;" u From him that is needy 
turn not away ;" u A word to the wise is sufficient for them;" 
M We may be good and happy without riches. 11 

The following are examples of the nominative case being used 
instead of the objective. " Who servest thou under ?" " Who do 
you speak to?" " We are still much at a loss who civil power 
belongs to:" " Who dost thou ask for?" "Associate not with 
those who none can speak well of." In all these places it ought 
to be "whom." See Note 1. 

The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xvii. 

the pronouns, as, " Give me the book ;" " Get me some paper ;" 
chat is, " to me ; for me." " Wo is me ;" i. e. " to me." " He was 
banished England ;" i. e. "from England." 

1 The preposition is often separated from the relative which 
it governs ; as, " Whom wilt thou give it to ?" instead of, " To 
whom wilt thou give it?" " He is an author whom I am much 
delighted with ;" " The world is too polite to shock authors with 
a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first that inform 
them of." This is an idiom to which our language is strongly in- 
clined ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well 
with the familiar style in writing : but the placing of the prepo- 
sition before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more per- 
spicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated 
style. 

2 Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in or- 
der to connect different prepositions with the same noun : as, 
" To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient of and ante- 
cedent to, themselves." This, whether in the familiar or the so- 
lemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally be avoided. 
In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and exactnes of ex- 
pression must take place of every other consideration, it may be 
admitted. 

3 Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed 
by different prepositions, though in conjunction with the same 
verb or adjective. Thus we say, " to converse with a person, 
upon a subject, in a house, &c." We also say, " We are disap- 
pointed of a thing," when we cannot get it, " and disappointed 
in it," when we have it, and find it does not answer our expecta- 
tions. But two different prepositions must be improper in the 
same construction, and in the same sentence : as, " The combat 
between thirty French against twenty English." 

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two preposi- 
tions the preference is to be given, as both are used promis- 
cuously, and custom has not decided in favour of either of them. 
We say, " Expert at," and " expert in a thing." " Expert at 
finding a remedy for his mistakes ;" "Expert in deception." 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally 
the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns 
are derived: as, " A compliance with" " to comply .with ;" "A 
disposition to tyranny," " disposed to tyrannize." 

4 As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of 
great importance, we shall select a considerable number of ex- 
amples of impropriety, in the application of this part of speech. 

1st, With respect to the preposition of — " He is resolved of 
going to the Persian court ;" " on going," &c. " He was totally 
dependent of the Papal crown ;" " on the Papal," &c. " To 
call of a person," and " to wait of him," " on a person," &c. 
" He was eager of recommending it to bis fellow-citizens," "in 
recommending," &c. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes 
inserted, after worthy: as, "It is worthy observation," o** ; "of 



Rule xvii.] SYNTAX. 133 

ooservation." But it would have been better omitted in the fol- 
lowing sentences. "The emulation, who should serve their 
country best, no longer subsists among them, but of who should 
obtain the most lucrative command." " The rain hath been fall- 
ing of a long time ;" " falling a long time." " It is situation 
chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men ;" 
♦• decides the fortune," or, " concerning the fortune." " He found 
the greatest difficulty of writing;" "in writing." "It might 
have given me a greater taste of its antiquities." A taste of a 
thmg implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste/or it, implies 
only a capacity for enjoyment. " This had a much greater share 
oi inciting him, than any regard after his father's commands ;" 

4" share in inciting," and " regard to his father's," &c. 
2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. — "You have 
bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons ;" " upon 
the most deserving," &c. "He accused the ministers for be- 
traying the Dutch :" "of having betrayed." "His abhorrence 
to that superstitious figure ;" " of that," &c. " A great change 
to the better ;" "for the better." " Your prejudice to my cause ;" 
"against" " The English were very different people then to 
what they are at present ;" "from what," &c. " In compliance 
to the declaration;" "with," &c. " It is more than they thought 
for;" "thought of" "There is no need for it ;" "of it." For 
is superfluous in the phrase, " More than he knows for." " No 
discouragement for the authors to proceed ;" " to the authors," 
&c. " It was perfectly in compliance to some persons ;" "with." 
"The wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their 
greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon coun- 
sel;" "diminution of" and " derogation from" 

3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon. — " Recon- 
ciling himself with the king." "Those things which have the 
greatest resemblance with each other, frequently differ the most." 
" That such rejection should be consonant with our common 
nature." " Conformable with," &c. "The history of Peter is 
agreeable with the sacred texts." In all the above instances, it 
should be, "£o," instead of " with." " It is a use that perhaps 
i I should not have thought on ;" " thought of" " A greater 
quantity may be taken from the heap, without making any 
sensible alteration upon it;" "in it." "Intrusted to persons 
i on whom the parliament could confide;" "in whom." "He 
\ was made much on at Argos ;" " much of." " If policy can 
, prevail upon force ;" " over force." " I do likewise dissent with 
J the examiner ;" "from" 

4th, With respect to the prepositions in, from, &c. — " They 

should be informed in some parts of his character;" "about" 

or, " concerning" " Upon such occasions as fell into their 

j cognizance ;" "under" "That variety of factions into which 

J we are still engaged;" "in which." "To restore myself into 

i the favour ;" " to the favour." "Could he have profited from 

repeated experiences:" " by." From seems to be superfluous 

M 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xviii 

after forbear : as, "He could not forbear from appointing the 
pope," &c. " A strict observance after times and fashions ;" " of 
times*" "The character which we may now value ourselves by 
drawing j" " upon drawing." " Neither of them shall make me 
swerve out of the path;" "from the path." "Ye blind guides, 
which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel ;" it ought to be, 
%i which strain out a gnat, or take a gnat out of the liquor by 
straining it." The impropriety of the preposition has wholly 
destroyed the meaning of the phrase. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of things. 
It cannot be properly used in conjunction with the word every, 
which is in the singular number : as, " Which is found among 
every species of liberty ;" "The opinion seems to gain ground 
among every body." 

5 The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, 
when they follow verbs and participles of motion : as, " I went 
to London ;" " I am going to town." But the preposition at is 
generally used after the neuter verb to be : as, " I have been at 
London ;" " I was at the place appointed ;" " I shall be at Paris.* 
We likewise say: "He touched, arrived at any place." The 
preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns : as, 
" He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But before 
villages, single houses, and cities which are in distant coun- 
tries, at is used; as, "He lives at Hackney;" "He resides at 
Montpelier." 

It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pronoun one 
another, whether the preposition of be placed between the two 
parts of it, or before them both. We may say, " They were 
jealous of one another ;" or, " They were jealous one of ano- 
ther ;" but perhaps the former is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions : as, excepting, 
respecting, touching, concerning, according. " They were all 
in fault except or excepting him." 

RULE XVIII. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of 
verbs and cases of nouns and pronouns : as, " Candour is 
to be approved and practised :" " If thou sincerely desire, 
and earnestly pursue virtue, she will assuredly be found by 
thee, and prove a rich reward :" " The master taught her 
aad me to write :" " He and she were school fellows."* 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further 
display its utility. " If he prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere 
in his professions, he will succeed ;" " if he prefers" " To 
deride the miseries of the unhappy, is inhuman ; and wanting 
compassion towards them, is unchristian;" " and to want com- 
passion." " The parliament addressed the king, and has been 

* This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the same bearing 
or relation, with regard to other parts of the sentence 



Role xix/J SYNTAX. 135 

prorogued the same day ;" u and was prorogued." " His wealth 
and him bid adieu to each other ;" •' and he." " He entreated 
us, my comrade and I, to live harmoniously ;" u comrade and 
Tie." u My sister and her were on good terms ;" u and she." 4t We 
often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, and 
are searching after those which are out of our reach :" it ought 
to be, " and starch after." 

1 Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect dif- 
ferent moods and tenses of verbs: but in these instances the 
nominative must generally, if not always, be repeated, which is 
not necessary, though it may be done, under the construction to 
which the rule refers. We may say, " He lives temperately, and 
he should live temperately ;" "He may return, but he will not 
continue ;" " She was proud, though she is now humble :" but it 
is obvious, that in such cases, the nominative ought to be re- 
peated ; and that, by this means, the latter members of these 
sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent on the preceding, 
as those are which come under the rule. When, in the progress 
of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, 
or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or nomina- 
tive is always resumed : as, " He is rich, but he is not respect- 
able." " He is not rich, but he is respectable." There appears 
to be, in general, equal reason for repeating the nominative, and 
resuming the subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted 
by a change of the mood or tense. The following sentences 
may therefore be improved. f4 Anger glances into the breast of 
a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools ;" " but rests 
only ;" or, " but it will rest only." "Virtue is praised by many, 
and would be desired also, if her worth were really known ;" 
44 and she would." 44 The world begins to recede, and will 
soon disappear •" 44 and it will." See the Octavo Grammar, 
Rule xviii. 

RULE XIX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the sub- 
junctive mood, after them. It is a general rule, that when 
something contingent or doubtful is implied, the subjunctive 
ought to be used : as, " If I were to write, he Would not re- 
gard it ;" " He will not be pardoned, unless he repent" 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature 
require the indicative mood. " As virtue advances, so vice 
recedes :" " He is healthy, because he is temperate." 

The conjunctions, if, though, unless, except, whether, &c. gene- 
rally require the subjunctive mood after them : as, 44 If thou be 
afflicted, repine not;" "Though he slay me, yet will I trust, in 
him;" 44 He cannot be clean, unless he wash himself;" 44 No 
power, except it were given from above ;" 4t Whether it ivce I or 
they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions, when the 
sentence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative : as, 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xix. 

' Though he is poor, he is contented." — See Subjunctive Mood, 
page 53, and pages 139, 140. 

The following example may, in some measure, serve to illus- 
trate the distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative 
moods. " Though he were divinely inspired, and spoke therefore 
as the oracles of God, with supreme authority ; though he were 
endued with supernatural powers, and could, therefore, have 
confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by miracles ; yet, in 
compliance with the way in which human nature and reasonable 
creatures are usually wrought upon, he reasoned." That our 
Saviour was divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural 
powers, are positions that are here taken for granted, as not 
admitting the least doubt ; they would therefore have been better 
expressed in the indicative mood : " Though he was divinely 
inspired; though he was endued with supernatural powers." 
The subjunctive is used in the like improper manner in the follow 
ing example : " Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience, 
by the things which he suffered." But, in a similar passage, the 
indicative, with great propriety, is employed to the same purpose ; 
" Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." 

1 Lest, and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessa- 
rily require the subjunctive mood : as, " Love not sleep, lest thou 
come to poverty ;" "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee;" 
44 Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob." 

If with hut following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the 
subjunctive mood: as, " If he do but touch the hills, they shall 
smoke ;" " Ifjcie be but discrete, he will succeed." But the indi- 
cative ought to be used, on this occasion, when future time is 
not signified : as, "If in this expression, he does but jest, no of- 
fence should be taken ;" " If she is but sincere, I am happy." 
The same distinction applies to the following forms of expres- 
sion : " If he do submit, it will be from necessity ;" " Though ha 
does submit, he is not convinced ;" " If thou do not reward this 
service, he will be discouraged ;" " If thou dost heartily forgive 
him, endeavour to forget the offence." 

2 In the following instances, the conjunction that, expressed 
or understood, seems to be improperly accompanied with the 
subjunctive mood. " So much she dreaded his tyranny, that the 
fate of her friend she dare not lament." " He reasoned so artfully 
that his friends would listen, and think [that] he were not wrong." 

3 The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the 
subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same cir- 
cumstances, seems to be a great impropriety : as in these in- 
stances. " If there be but one body of legislators, it is no better 
than a tyranny ; if there are only two, there will want a casting 
voice." "If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is 
gone astray," &x. 

4 Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any lan- 
guage, have arisen from the ellipsis of some words, which were 
originally inserted in the sentence, and made it regular ; and it 



Rulil xi>. SYNTAX. 137 

is probable, that this has generally been the case wit£ respect to 
the conjunctive form of words, now in use ; which will appear 
from the following examples : " We shall overtake him though 
he run ;" that is, " though he should run ;" "Unless he act pru- 
dently, he will not accomplish his purpose ;" that is, "unless he 
shall act prudently." " If he succeed and obtain his end, he will 
not be the happier for it ;" that is, " If he should succeed and 
should obtain his end." These remarks and examples are design- 
ed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive 
forms of expression ; and to enable the student to examine the 
propriety of using them, by tracing the words in question to their 
proper origin and ancient connexions. But it is necessary to be 
more particular on this subject, and therefore we shall add a few 
observations respecting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the present 
tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future signification. 
This is effected by varying the terminations of the second and 
third persons singular of the indicative ; as will be evident from 
the following examples: " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be 
thankful ;" " Unless he study more closely, he will never be 
learned." Some writers however, would express these senti- 
ments without those variations ; "If thou prosperest" &c. "Un- 
less he studies" &c. : and as there is great diversity of practice 
in this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few remarks, to 
assist them in distinguishing the right application of these differ- 
ent forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that 
the changes of termination are necessary, when these two cir- 
cumstances concur: 1st, When the subject is of a dubious and 
contingent nature ; and 2d, When the verb has a reference to 
future time. In the following sentences, both these circum- 
stances will be found to unite: " If thou injure another, thou 
wilt hurt thyself ;" " He has a hard heart ; and if he continue 
impenitent, he must suffer;" " He will maintain his principles, 
though he lose his estate ;" " Whether he succeed or not, his in- 
tention is laudable ;" " If he be not prosperous, he will not re- 
pine ;" " If a man smite his servant, and he die" &c. Uxod. xxi. 
20. In all these examples, the things signified by the verbs are 
uncertain, and refer to future time. But in the instances which 
follow, future time isnotreferred to ; and therefore a different con- 
struction takes place ; " If thou livest virtuously, thou art happy ;" 
44 Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless ;" u If he 
allows the excellence of virtue, he does not regard her precepts ;'' 
" Though he seems to be simple and artless, he has deceived us;" 
11 Whether virtue is better than rank or wealth, admits not of any 
dispute;" " If thou believest with all thy heart, thou mayst," &c. 
Acts viii. 37. — There are many sentences, introduced by con- 
junctions, in which neither contingency nor futurity is denoted : 
as, "Though he excels her in knowledge, she far exceeds him in 
virtue." " I have no doubt of his principles : but if he believes 
the truths of religion, he does not act according to them." 

M2 



Io& KNCUSIi (i RAM MAR. [Rule xi - 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity ara 
necessary, as testa of tl)e propriety of altering the terminations, 
will be evident, by inspecting the following examples; which 
show that theie are instances in which neither of the circum- 
stances alone implies the other. In the three examples follow- 
ing, contingency is denoted, but not futurity. " If he thinks as 
lie speaks, he may safely be trusted." " If he is now disposed to 
it, 1 will perform the operation." " He acts uprightly, unless he 
deceives me." In the following sentences, futurity is signified, 
but not contingency. "As soon as the sun sets, it will be 
cooler." "As the autumn advances, these birds will gradually 
emigrate." 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the 
rules above mentioned may be extended to assert, that in cases 
wherein contingency and futurity do not concur, it is not proper 
to turn the verb from its signification of present time, nor to vary 
•ts form or termination. The verb would then be in the indica 
tive mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it. — If these 
rules, which seem to form the true distinction between the sub 
junctive and the indicative moods in this tense, were adopted 
and established in practice, we should have, on this point, a prin- 
ciple of decision simple and precise, and readily applicable to 
every case that might occur. — It will, doubtless, sometimes hap- 
pen, that, on this occasion, as well as on many other occasions, 
a strict adherence to grammatical rules, would render the lan- 
guage stiff and formal : but when cases of this sort occur, it is 
better to give the expression a different turn, than to violate 
grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance. See Rule 14. 
Note 2. 

5 On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of th* 
subjunctive mood, it seems proper to make a few observations 
Some writers express themselves in the perfect tense as follows : 
" If thou have determined, we must submit:" "Unless he have 
consented, the writing will be void:" but we believe that few 
authors of critical sagacity write in this manner. The propei 
form seems to be, " If thou hast determined ; unless he has con- 
sented," &c. conformably to what we generally meet with in the 
Bible : " I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not known me." 
Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. " What is the hope of the hypocrite, though he 
hath gained," &c. Job xxvii. 8. See also jlcts xxviii. 4. 

6 In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet with 
such expressions as these ; " If thou had applied thyself diligent- 
ly, thou wouldst have reaped the advantage ;" "Unless thou shall 
speak the whole truth, we cannot determine ;" "If thou ivill un- 
dertake the business, there is little doubt of success." This mode 
of expressing the auxiliaries does not appear to be warranted by 
the general practice of correct writers. They should be hadst, 
shall, and wilt: and we find them used in this form, in the sacred 
Scriptures. 

"If thou hadst known,'' &c. Luke xix. 47. "If thou hadst beep 



Rule xix.] SYNTAX. 13& 

here," &c. John xi. 21. " If thou wilt, thou canst make me 
clean," Matt. viii. 2. Bee also, 2 Sam. ii. 27. jtfatf xvii. 4. 

7 The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the 
subjunctive mood, is also very frequently varied in its termina- 
tion : as, "If thou loved him truly, thou wouldst obey him;" 
u Though thou did conform, thou hast gained nothing by it.' 
This variation, however, appears to be improper. Our present 
version of the Scriptures, which we again refer to, as a good 
grammatical authority in points of this nature, decides against 
it. "If thou knewest the gift," &c. John iv. 10. " If thou didst 
receive it, why dost thou glory ?" &c. 1 Cor. iv. 7. See also 
Dan. v. 22. But it is proper to remark, that the form of the 
verb to be, when used subjunctively in the imperfect tense, is in- 
deed very considerably and properly varied from that which it 
has in the imperfect of the indicative mood : as the learner will 
perceive by turning to the conjugation of that verb. 

8 It may not be superfluous, also to observe, that the aux- 
iliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, 
do not change the termination of the second person*' singular. 
We properly say, " If thou mayst or canst go ;" " Though thou 
mightst live;" "Unless thou couldst read;" "If thou wouldst 
learn ;" and not " If thou may or can go," &c. It is sufficient, 
on this point, to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth ; 
" If thou shouldst go ;" Johnson. " If thou mayst, mightst, or 
couldst love ;" Lowth. Some authors think, that when thai ex- 
presses the motive or end, the termination of these auxiliaries 
should be varied: as, "I advise thee, that thou may beware;" 
"He checked thee, that thou should not presume:" bu* there 
does not appear to be any ground for this exception. If the 
expression of " condition, doubt, contingency," &c. does not 
warrant a change in the form of these auxiliaries, why should 
they have it, when a motive or end is expressed ? The translators 
of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction 
contended for. " Thou buiidest the wall, that thou mayst be 
their king," JYeh. vi. 6. " There is forgiveness with thee, that 
thou mayst be feared." Psalm cxxx. 4. 

From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears, 
that with respect to what is termed the present tense of any 
verb, when the circumstances of contingency and futurity concur, 
it is proper to vary the terminations of the second and third 
persons singular ; that without the concurrence of those circum- 
stances, the terminations should not be altered ; and that the 
verb and the auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the aux- 
iliaries of the first future, undergo no alterations whatever : 
except the imperfect of the verb to be, which, in cases denoting 
contingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular number. 
See page 64. The Note. 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will 
be natural for the student to inquire, what is the extent of the 
subjunctive mood ? Some grammarians think it extends oslw 



*. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xiy 

to what is called the present tense of verbs generally, under the 
circumstances of contingency and futurity ; and to tlfe imperfect 
tense of the verb to be, when it denotes contingency, &c. :. be- 
cause in these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of varia- 
tion ; and they suppose that it is variation merely which con- 
stitutes the distinction of moods. It is the opinion of other 
grammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) that, besides the 
two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three past, and the 
two future tenses, are in the subjunctive mood, when they de- 
note contingency or uncertainty, though they have not any 
change of termination ; and that, when contingency is no. 
signified, the verb, through all these five tenses, belongs to the 
indicative mood, whatever conjunction may attend it. They 
think, that the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, 
have no reference to change of termination, but that they refer 
merely to the manner of the being, action, or passion, signified 
by the verb ; and that the subjunctive mood may as properly 
exist without a variation of the verb, as the infinitive mood, 
which has no terminations different from those of the indicative. 
The decision of this point may not, by some grammarians, be 
thought of much consequence. But the rules which ascertain 
the propriety of varying, or not varying, the terminations of the 
verb, will certainly be deemed important. These rules may be 
.veil observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respecting the 
nature and limits of the subjunctive mood. For further remarks 
n the subject, see pages 56, 59—61, 72—74, 77 — 78.* 
9 Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belong- 
ing to them, either expressed or understood: as, 

1st, Though, — yet, nevertheless : as, " Though he was rich, yet 
for our sakes he became poor." " Though powerful, he was 
meek." 

2d, Whether — or : as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell." 
3d, Either — or : as, u I will either send it, or bring it myself." 
4th, Neither — nor : as, "Neither he nor I am able to compass it." 

* We have stated, for the student's information, the different opinions of 
grammarians, respecting the English Subjunctive Mood : First, that which sup- 
poses there is no such mood in our language ; Secondly, that which extends 
it no farther than the variations of the verb extend; Thirdly, that which we 
have adopted, and explained at large ; and which, in general, corresponds with 
the views of the most approved writers on English Grammar. We may add a 
Fourth opinion; which appears to possess, at least, much plausibility. This 
opinion admits the arrangement we have given, with one variation, namely, 
that of assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, two forms: 1st, that 
which simply denotes contingency : as, " H he desires it, I will perform the 
operation :" that is, " If he now desires it ;" 2dly, that which denotes both con 
tingency and futurity; as, " If he desire it, I will perform the operation ;" that 
is, " If he should hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunctive mood, 
claims the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods consistent and 
regular; of '^ing more conformable than any other, to the definition of the 
subjunctive, find of not referring to the indicative mood' forms of expression, 
which ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhaps this theory will bewr 
* strict examination. 






Rule xix.] SYNTAX. 141 

5th, As — as : expressing a comparison of equality : as, " She 
is as amiable as her sister ; and as much respected." 

6th, As — so: expressing a comparison of equality : as "As 
the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7th, As — so : expressing a comparison of quality : as, "As the 
one dieth, so dieth the other." "As he reads, they read." 

8ch, So — as : with a verb expressing a comparison of quality : 
as, " To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 

9th, So — as: with a negative and an adjective expressing a 
comparison of quantity : as, " Pompey was not so great a general 
as Caesar, nor so great a man." 

10th, So — that: expressing a consequence: as, " He was so 
fatigued, that he could scarcely move." 

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly 
equal propriety. " The king, whose character was not sufficiently 
vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the measure." In this sen- 
tence, or would perhaps have been better : but, in general, nor 
seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, 
and therefore gives* more emphasis to the expression. 

10 Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in 
pairs. The following are examples of this impropriety. "The 
relations are so uncertain, as that they require a great deal of 
examination :" it. should be, " that they require," &c. " There 
was no man so sanguine, who did *ot apprehend some ill conse- 
quences :" it ought to be, " so sanguine as not to apprehend," 
&c. ; or, "no man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. 
" To trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power." 
" This is no other but the gate of paradise." In both these 
instances, but should be than. " We should sufficiently weigh 
the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as we may rea- 
sonably expect from them what they propose," &c. It ought 
to be, " that we may reasonably," &c. " The duke had not 
behaved with that loyalty as he ought to have done ;" " with 
which he ought." " In the order as they lie in his preface :" it 
should be, "in order as they lie;" or, "in the order in which they 
lie." "Such sharp replies that cost him his life;" "as cost 
him," &c. " If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now com 
monly painted ;" " such a scarecrow," &c. " I wish I could do 
that justice to his memory, to oblige the painters," &c. ; " do 
such justice as to oblige," &c. 



There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the 
conjunctive form of a verb. " Were there no difference, there 
would be no choice." 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sen- 
tence, is sometimes made use of: as, "had he done this, he had 
escaped ;" " Had the limitations on the prerogative been, in his 
time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made him regard 
as sacred, the boundaries of the constitution." The sentence in 
the common form would have read thus : " If the limitations on 






149 HJNGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xx 

the prerogative bad been, &c. bis integrity would bave made 
him regard," &c. 

The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, 
has the force of a relative pronoun : as, " Let such as presume 
to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;" which is 
equivalent to, " Let them who presume," &c. But when used 
by itself, this particle is to be considered as a conjunction, or 
perhaps as an adverb. See the Key. 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to familiar style, 
equivalent to notwithstanding. Tbe words for all that, seem to 
be too low. "The word was in the mouth of every one, but, foi 
all that, the subject may still be a secret." 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do 
much better in the following sentence. " It cannot be other- 
wise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of every 
other language." 

The word except is far preferable to other than. "It admitted 
of no effectual cure other than amputation." Except is also to 
be preferred to all hut. " They were happy all but the stranger." 

In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is improperly 
omitted ; " Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine a to hope." 
" I must, however, be so just a to own." 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and under- 
stood ; as, "I beg you would come to me ;" " See thou do it not ;" 
instead of "that you would," "that thou do." But in the fol- 
lowing and many similar phrases, this conjunction were much 
better inserted : "Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues 
remain to posterity." It should be, "yet it is just that the me- 
mory," &c. 

RULE XX. 

When the qualities of different things are compared, the 
latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction 
than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed by the 
verb or the preposition, expressed or understood: as, " Thou 
art wiser than I ;" that is, " than I am." " They loved him 
more than me ;" i.e. "more than they loved me." "The 
sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
Solomon than him ;" that is, " than by him."* 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preced- 
ing as well as in some other forms, may be discovered, by sup- 
plying the words that are not expressed ; which will be evident 
from the following instances of erroneous construction. " He 
can read better than me." " He is as good as her." " Whe- 
ther I be present or no." "Who did this ? Me." By supplying 
the words understood in each of these phrases, their impropriety 
and governing rule will appear : as, "Better than I can read ;". 
" As good as she is ;" "Present or not present ;" " I did it." 

* See the Tenths or any subsequent eriuiow, of the Key : Rule xx. TheftpT^ 



Rule xxj.] SYNTAX. J4S 

1 By not attending to this rule, many errors have been com 
mitted : a number of which is subjoined, as a further caution 
and direction to the learner. " Thou art a much greater loser 
than me by his death." a She suffers hourly more than me." 
" We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were 
obliged to the same proportion more, than us." u King Charles, 
and more than him, the duke' and the popish faction, were at li- 
berty to form new schemes." " The drift of all his sermons was, 
to prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than 
him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." " It was not 
the work of so eminent an author, as him to whom it was first 
imputed." " A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty ; but a 
fool's wrath is heavier than them both." " If the king give us 
leave, we may perform the office as well as them that do." In 
these passages it ought to be, " I, we, he, they, respectively." 

When the relative who immediately follows than, it seems to 
form an exception to the 20th rule ; for in that connexion, the re- 
lative must be in the objective case ; as, " Alfred, than whom, a 
greater king never reigned," &c. "Beelzebub, than whom, Satan 
excepted, none higher sat," &c. It is remarkable that in such 
instances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would be in the 
nominative case; as, " A greater king never reigned than he;" 
that is, "than he was.'' 1 " Beelzebub, than he," &c. ; that is, 
" than he sat." The phrase than whom, is, however, avoided by 
the best modern writers. 

RULE XXL 
To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
deas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some words, 
is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, " He was a learn- 
ed man, he was a wise man, and he was a good man, 5 ' we 
make use of the ellipsis, and say, " He was a learned, wise, 
and good man." 

When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety, they 
must be expressed. In the sentence, " We are apt to love 
who love us," the word them should be supplied. " A beau- 
tiful field and trees," is not proper language. It should be, 
" Beautiful fields and trees ;" or, " A beautiful field and 
fine trees." 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elliptical 
some examples of which may be seen under the different part* 
of speech. 

1 The ellipsis of the article is thus used; ** A man, woman, 
and child:" that is, " a man, a woman, and a child." " A house 
and garden ;" that is, " a house and a garden." " The sun and 
moon ;" that is, " the sun and the moon." "The day and hour :" 
that is, "the day and the hour." In all these instances, the ar 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule x\ 

ticie being" once expressed, the repetition of it becomes unneces 
gary. There is, however, an exception to this observation, whe 



: 



some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the folio win^ 
sentence. "Not only the year, but the day and the hour." In 
this case, the ellipsis of the last article would be improper. 
When a different form of the article is requisite, the article is 
also properly repeated : as, " a house and an orchard ;" instead 
of, " a house and orchard." 

2 The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner. 
" The laws of God and man ;" that is, " the laws of God and the 
laws of man." In some very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis 
should not be used : as, " Christ the power of God, and the wis- 
dom of God ;" which is more emphatical than, " Christ the 
power and wisdom of God." 

3 The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner. 
"A delightful garden and orchard ;" that is, " a delightful gar- 
den and a delightful orchard;" "A little man and woman;" that 
is, " A little man and a little woman." In such elliptical expres- 
sions as these, the adjective ought to have exactly the same sig- 
nification, and to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter 
substantive as to the former ; otherwise the ellipsis should not 
be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of dif- 
ferent numbers: as, " A magnificent house and gardens." In 
this case it is better to use another adjective ; as, "A magnificent 
house and fine gardens." 

4 The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun. " I love and 
fear him ;" that is, " I love him, and I fear him." " My house 
and lands ;" that is, " my house and my lands." In these in- 
stances the ellipsis may take place with propriety ; but if we 
would be more express and emphatical, it must not be used: as 
" His friends and his foes ;" " My sons and my daughters." 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun 
is usually omitted : as, "This is the man they love ;" instead of, 
"This is the man ivhom they love." " These are the goods they 
bought ;" for, "These are the goods which they bought." 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative 
pronoun expressed : as it is more proper to say, " The posture in 
which I lay," than, " In the posture I lay :" " The horse on 
which I rode, fell down ;" than " The horse Irode,fell down." 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence 
together, and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, should answer 
to each other with great exactness. "We speak that we do 
know, and testify that we have seen." Here the, ellipsis is mani- 
festly improper, and ought to be supplied : as, " We speak that 
tvhich we do know, and testify that ivhich we have seen." 

5 The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances 
" The man was old and crafty;" that is, "The man was old, and 
the man was crafty." " She was young, and beautiful, and good ;' 
that is, She was young, she was beautiful, and she was good. ' 



Rule xxi.] SYNTAX. 145 

** Thou art poor, and wretched, aiul miserable, and blind, and na- 
ked." If we would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou 
art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property 
above the rest, that property must be placed last, and the ellip- 
sis supplied : as, " She is young and beautiful, and she is good." 

44 1 went to see and hear him ;" that is, fc4 I went to see and I 
went to hear him." In this instance there is not only an ellipsis 
of the governing verb I went, but likewise of the sign of the in- 
finitive mood, which is governed by it. 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the 
auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to 
spare the repetition of the verb : as, " He regards his word, but 
thou dost not :" i. e. " dost not regard it." " We succeeded, but 
they did not ;" " did not succeed." " I have learned my task, but 
thou hast not ;" " hast not learned." " They must, and they shall 
be punished ;" that is, " They must be punished." See the Key. 

6 The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner 
" He spoke and acted wisely ;" that is, " He spoke wisely, and 
he acted wisely." " Thrice I went and offered my service ;" that 
is, " Thrice I went, and thrice 1 offered my service." 

7 The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen 
in the following instances: " He went into the abbeys, halls, and 
public buildings;" that is, " he went into the abbeys, he went 
into the halls, and he went into the public buildings." " He also 
went through all the streets and lanes of the city ;" that is, 
44 Through all the streets, and through all the lanes," &c. 44 He 
spoke to every man and woman there," that is, 44 to every man 
and to every woman." ' 4 This day, next month, last year ;" 
that is, 44 on this day, in the next month, in the last year ;" "The 
Lord do that which seemeth him good ;" that is, 44 which seem- 
eth to him." 

8 The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows: 44 They confess 
the power, wisdom, goodness, and love, of their Creator ;" i. e. 
"the power, and wisdom, and goodness, and love of," &c. 
"Though I love him, I do not flatter him," that is, "Though I 
love him, yet I do not flatter him." 

9 The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common ; it, how- 
ever is sometimes used : as, " Oh ! pity and shame !" that is 
" Oh pity ! Oh shame !" 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence m the English 
language, numerous examples ot it might be given ; but only a 
few more can be admitted here. 

In the following instance there is a very considerable one : 
" He will often argue, that if this part of our trade were well 
cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and if another, 
from another ;" that is, " He will often argue, that if this part of 
our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation, 
and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, we should 
gain from another nation." 

7 N 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xxii 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the el- 
lipsis : " Wo is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." "To let blood ;" i. e. 
"to let out blood.'' "To let down;" i. e. "to let it fall or 
slide down." " To walk a mile ;" i. e. " to walk through the 
space of a mile." " To sleep all night ;" i. e. " To sleep through 
all the night." " To go a fishing ;" " To go a hunting :" i. e. " to 
go on a fishing voyage or business ;" "to go on a hunting party." 
'I dine at two o'clock ;" i. e. " at two of the clock." "By sea, 
by land, on shore :" i. e. " By the sea, by the land, on the shore." 

10 The examples that follow are produced to show the im- 
propriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land was 
always possessed, during pleasure, by those intrusted with the 
command ;" it should be, " those persons intrusted ;" or, " those 
who were intrusted." " If he had read further, he would have 
found several of his objections might have been spared :" that is, 
" he would have found that several of his objections," &c. 
" There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing 
their own characters." It ought to be, " nothing in which men ;" 
and, "than in knowing." "I scarcely know any part of na- 
tural philosophy would yield more variety and use ;" it should 
be, " which would yield," &c. " In the temper of mind he was 
then ;" i. e. " in which he then was." " The little satisfaction and 
consistency, to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have 
met with, made me betake myself to the sole reading of the 
Scriptures :" it ought to be, " which are to be found," and " which 
I have met with." " He desired they might go to the altar to- 
gether, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were 
due ;" i. e. " to him to whom," &c. 

RULE XXII. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
otht r : a regular and dependent construction, throughout, 
should be carefully preserved. The following sentence is 
therefore inaccurate : " He was more beloved, but not so 
much admired, as Cinthio." It should he, " He was more 
beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired." 

The first example under this rule, presents a most irregular 
construction, namely, " He was more beloved as Cinthio." The 
words more and so much, are very improperly stated as having 
the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not ne- 
cessary to supply the latter ellipsis ; because it cannot lead to 
any discordant or improper construction, and the supply would 
often be harsh or inelegant. See p. HI. 

As the 22d Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, 
at the first view, appear to be too general to be useful. But by 
ranging under it a number of sentences peculiarly constructed, 
we shall perceive, that it is calculated to ascertain the true gram- 
matical construction of many modes of expression, which none 
of the particular rules can sufficiently explain. 



Rule xxii.] SYNTAX. 147 

" This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, 
or shall be published." It ought to be, " that has been, or shall 
oe published." " He was guided by interests always different, 
sometimes contrary to, those of the community;" "different 
r rom ;" or, " always different from those of the community,, and 
sometimes contrary to them." " Will it be urged that these 
books are as old, or even older than tradition ?" The words, "as 
old," and " older," cannot have a common regimen ; it should 
be " as old as tradition, or even older." " It requires few talents 
to which, most men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" 
" or which, at least they may not acquire " " The court of chan- 
cery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common 
law." In this construction, the first verb is said, "to mitigate 
the teeth of the common law," which is an evident solecism. 
" Mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would 
have been grammatical. 

"They presently grow into good humour, and good language 
towards the crown ;" "grow into good language," is very im- 
proper. " There is never wanting a set of evil instruments, who 
either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are always 
ready," &c. We say properly, " A man acts out of mad zeal," 
or, " out of private hatred ;" but we cannot say, if we would 
speak English, "he acts out of filthy lucre." "To double her 
kindness and caresses of me ;" the word "kindness" requires to 
be followed by either to or for, and cannot be construed with the 
preposition of. " Never was man so teased, or suffered half the 
uneasiness, as I have done this evening :" the first and third 
clauses, viz. "Never was man so teased, as I have done this 
evening," cannot be joined without an impropriety ; and to con- 
nect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for 
as; "Or suffered half the uneasiness that I have done;" or 
else, " half so much uneasiness as I have suffered." 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, 
and those such as are hardly consistent with one another: " How 
much soever the reformation of this degenerate age is almost ut- 
terly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more comfortable 
prospect of future times." The sentence would be more correct 
in the following form : " Though the reformation of this degene- 
rate age is nearly to be despaired of," &c. 

"Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with 
the blood-thirsty; in whose hands is wickedness, and their right- 
hand is full of gifts." As the passage, introduced by the copula- 
tive conjunction and, was not intended as a continuation of the 
principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the de- 
pendent part, the relative whose should have been used instead 
of the possessive their ; viz. " and whose right-hand is full of gifts." 

" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into 
tne heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them 
that love him." There seems to be an impropriety in this in- 
stance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, per- 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

forming at the same time the offices both of the nominalive and 
objective cases. ** Neither hath'it entered into the heart of man, 
to conceive the things," &c. would have been regular. 

" We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding, 
those images which we have once received, into all the varieties 
of picture and vision." It is very proper to say, " altering and 
compounding those images which we have orice received, into 
all the varieties of picture and vision ;" but we can with no pro- 
priety say, " retaining them into all the varieties ;" and yet, ac- 
cording to the manner m which the words are ranged, this con- 
struction is unavoidable : for 4 * retaining, altering, and com- 
pounding," are participles, each of which equally refers to, and 
governs the subsequent noun, those images ; and that noun 
again is necessarily connected with the following preposition, 
into. The construction might easily have been rectified, by dis- 
joining the participle retaining from the other two participles, in 
this way: " We have the power of retaining those images which 
we have once received, and of altering and compounding them 
into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps, better 
thus: u We have the power of retaining, altering, and compound- 
ing those images which we have once received, and of forming 
them into all the varieties of picture and vision." 

INTERJECTION. 

For the syntax of the Interjection, see Rule v. Note 11, page 
106, and Note 9, of Rule xxi. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 

As we have finished the explanation of the different parts of 
speech, and the rules for forming them into sentences, it is now 
proper to give some examples of the manner in which the learn- 
ers should be exercised, in order to prove their knowledge, and 
to render it familiar to them. This is called parsing. The na- 
ture of the subject, as well as the adaptation of it to learners, 
requires that it should be divided into two parts ; viz. parsing, as 
it respects etymology alone ; and parsing, as it respects both 
etymology and syntax.* 

SECTION I. Specimens of Etymological Parsing. 
"Virtue ennobles us." 

Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the 
third person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. 
(Decline the noun.) Ennobles is a regular verb active, indicative 
mood, present tense, and the third person singular. {Repeat the 
present tense, the imperfect tense, and the perfect participle.^) Us 
is a personal pronoun, of the first person plural, and in the 
objective case. (Decline it.) 

* See the " General Directions for using the English Exercises," prefixed to 
the eighth and every subsequent edition of that book. 
f The learner should occasionally repeat all the moods and tenses of the verb 



SYNTAX. 149 

44 Goodness will be rewarded." 
Goodness is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the 
bird person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. 
[Decline it.) Will be rewarded is a regular verb, in the passive 
voice, the indicative mood, the first future tense, and the third 
person singular.^ [Repeat the present tense, the imperfect tense, and 
tiie perfect participle.) 

" Strive to improve." 

Strive is an irregular verb neuter, in the imperative mood, and 
of the second person singular. (Repeat tlie present tense, fyc.) 
To improve is a regular verb neuter, and in the infinitive mood. 
Repeat the present tense, fyc.) 

" Time flies, O ! how swiftly." 

TVmeis a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (De- 
cline the noun.) Flies is an irregular verb neuter, the indicative 
mood, present tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat the 
present tense, fyc.) O I is an interjection. How and swiftly are 
adverbs. 

"Gratitude is a delightful emotion." 

Gratitude is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the 
ihird person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. 
[Decline it.) Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, 
present tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat the present 
tense, fyc.) A is the indefinite article. Delightful is an adjective 
in the positive state. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) Emo- 
tion is a common substantive of the neuter gender, the third per- 
son, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline vt.) 
"They who forgive,act nobly " 

They is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural 
cumber, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Who is a 
relative pronoun, and the nominative case. (Decline it.) Forgive 
is an irregular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and 
the third person plural. (Repeat the present tense, ^"c.) Act is a 
regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third 
person plural. (Repeat, fyc.) Nobly is an adverb of quality. (Re- 
peat the degrees of comparison.) 

" By living temperately, our health is promoted." 

By is a preposition. Diving is the present participle of the 
regular neuter verb " to live." (Repeat f he participles.) Tempe- 
rately is an adverb of quality. Our is an adjeclH© pronoun ot 
the possessive kind. (Decline it.) Health is a common sub- 
stantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the 
nominative case. (Decline it.) Is promoted is a regular verb 
passive, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person 
singular. (Repeat, fyc.) 

" We should be kind to them, who are unkind to us." 

JVe is a personal pronoun, of the first r.erson, tlie piurai num- 
ber and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Should be is an 

N2 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

irregular verb neuter, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, 
and the first person plural. (Repeat the present tense, fyc.) Kind 
is an adjective, in the positive state. (Repeat the degrees of com- 
parison.) To is a preposition. Them is a personal pronoun, of 
the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case. 
(Decline it) Who is a relative pronoun, and in the nominative 
case. (Decline it.) Are is an irregular verb neuter, indicative 
mood, present tense, and the third person plural. (Repeat, Sfc.) 
Unkind is an adjective in the positive state. (Repeat the degrees 
of comparison.) To is a preposition. Us is a personal pronoun, 
of the first person, the plural number, and in the objective case 
{Decline it.) 

SECTION II. Specimens of Syntactical Parsing. 
u Vice produces misery." 

Vice is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. Pro- 
duces is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, 
the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative "wee," 
according to Rule i. which says ; (here repeat the rule.) Misery 
is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, 
the singular number, and the objective case, governed by the 
active verb " produces," according to Rule xi. which says, &c. 
" Peace and joy are virtue's crown." 

Peace is a common substantive. (Repeat the gender, person, 
number, and case.) And is a copulative conjunction. Joy is a 
common substantive. (Repeat the person, number, and case.) Are 
is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and 
the third person plural, agreeing with the nominative case 
" peace and joy," according to Rule ii. which says ; (here repeat 
the rule.) Virtue's is a common substantive, of the third person, 
the singular number, and in the possessive case, governed by 
the substantive " crown," agreeably to Rule x. which says, &c. 
Crown is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
person, the singular number, and in the nominative case, agree 
ably to the fourth note of Rule xi. 

" Wisdom or folly governs us." 

Wisdom is a common substantive. (Repeat the gender, person, 
number, and case. Or is a disjunctive conjunction. Folly is a 
common substantive. (Repeat the person, number, and case.) 
Governs is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, 
and the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case. 
" wisdom" or " folly," according to rule hi. which says, &i 
Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, and 
in the objective case, governed by the active verb " governs," 
agreeably to rule xr. which says, &c. 

c< Every heart knows its sorrows." 

Every is an adjective pronoun of the distributive kind, agree- 
ing with its substantive " heart," according to Note 2 under rule 
viii. which s>ays, &c. Heart is a common substantive. (Re 






SYNTAX 151 

neat the gender person, number, and case.) Knows is an irregular 
verb active, indicative mood, present tense, third person singu- 
lar, agreeing with its nominative case " heart," according to 
rule i. which says, &c. Its is a persona] pronoun, of the third 
person singular, and of the neuter gender, to agree with its sub- 
stantive " heart," according to rule v. which says, &c. it is in 
the possessive case, governed by the noun "sorrows," according 
to rule x. which says, &c. Somows is a common substantive, 
of the third person, the plural number, and the objective case, 
governed by the active verb "knows," according to Rule xi. 
which says, &c. 

" The man is happy who lives wisely." 
The is the definite article. Man is a common substantive. 
(Repeat the person, number, and case.) Is is an irregular verb neu- 
ter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular, 
agreeing with the nominative case " man," according to Rule i. 
which says, &c. Happy is an adjective in the positive state. 
Who is a relative pronoun, which has for its antecedent, * man," 
with which it agrees in gender and number, according to Rule 
v. which says, &c. Lives is a regular verb neuter, indicative 
mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its no- 
minative " who," according to Rule vi. which says, &c. Wisely is 
an adverb of quality, placed after the verb, according to Rulexv. 
" Who preserves us ?" 
Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and in 
the nominative case singular. The word to which it relates, (its 
subsequent,) is the noun or pronoun containing the answer to 
the question ; agreeably to a note under Rule vi. Preserves is a 
regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, third person 
singular, agreeing with its nominative " who," according to Rule 
vi. which says, &c. Us is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the per- 
son, number, case, and rule.) 

" Whose house is that ? My brother's and mine. Who inhabit 
it? We." 

Whose is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and re- 
lates to the following words, "Brother's" and " mine," agreeably 
to a note under Rule vi. It is in the possessive case, governed 
by " house," according to Rule x. which says, &c. House is a 
common substantive, (Repeat the gender, person, number, and case.) 
Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, 
and the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative cass 
" house," according to Rule i. which says, &c. That is an ad- 
jective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. My is an adjective 
pronoun of the possessive kind. Brother's is a common substan- 
tive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the posses- 
sive case, governed by "house" understood, according to Rule 
x. and a note under Rule vi. And is a copulative conjunction. 
Mine is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the singular num- 
ber, and in the possessive case, according to a note under Rule 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

x. and another under Rule vi. Who is a relative pronoun of the 
interrogative kind, of the plural number, in the nominative case, 
and relates to " we" following, according to a note under Rule 
vi. Inhabit is a regular verb active. [Repeat the mood, tense, 
person, &c.) It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, thb 
singular number, and in the objective case, governed by the ac- 
tive verb "inhabit," according to Rule xi. which says, &c. Jfr 
is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural number, and 
the nominative case to the verb " inhabit" understood. The 
words "inhabit it" are implied after "we," agreeably to a note 
under Rule vi. 

" Remember to assist the distressed." 
Remember is a regular verb active, imperative mood, the se- 
cond person singular, and agrees with its nominative case " thou" 
understood. To assist is a regular verb active, in the infini- 
tive mood, governed by the preceding verb " remember," ac- 
cording to Rule xn. which says, &c. The is the definite arti- 
cle. Distressed is an adjective put substantively. 
" We are not unemployed." 
We is a personal pronoun. [Repeat the person, number, and 
case.) Are is an irregular verb neuter. [Repeat the mood, tense, 
person, &c.) Not is an adverb of negation. Unemployed is an 
adjective in the positive state. The two negatives not and un, 
form an affirmative, agreeably to Rule xvi. which says, &c. 

" This bounty has relieved you and us ; and has gratified the 
donor." 

This is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. Boun- 
ty is a common substantive. [Repeat the person, number, and 
case.) Has relieved is a regular verb active, indicative mood, 
perfect tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
" bounty," according to Rule 1. which says, tec. You is a per- 
sonal pronoun, of the second person plural, and in the objective 
case. [Repeat the government and rule.) And is a copulative 
conjunction. Us is a personal pronoun, in the objective case. 
You and us are put in the same case, according to Rule xvm. 
which says, &c. And is a copulative conjunction. Has grati- 
fied is a regular verb active, indicative mood, perfect tense, and 
third person singular, agreeing with its nominative " bounty" 
understood. " Has relieved," and " has gratified," are in the same 
mood and tense, according to Rule xvin. which says, &c. The 
is the definite article. Donor is a common substantive, of the 
third person, the singular number, and the objective case, go- 
verned by the active verb " has gratified," according to Rule xi. 
which says, &c. See the Octavo Grammar, on Gender. 
" He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and in the nominative case. Will be pardoned 
is a regular passive verb, indicative mood, first future tense, and 
the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative "he,' 



SYNTAX. 153 

according to Rule i. and composed of the auxiliaries ".will be," 
and the perfect participle " pardoned." ./VbJis a negative adverb. 
Unless is a disjunctive conjunction. He is a personal pronoun. 
'Repeat the person, number, gender, and case.) Repent is a regular 
verb neuter, in the subjunctive mood, the present tense, the third 
person singular, and agrees with its nominative case " he," ac- 
cording to Rule i. which says, &c. It is in the subjunctive mood, 
because it implies a future sense, and denotes uncertainty signi- 
fied by the conjunction "unless," agreeably to Rule xix. and 
the notes. 

" Good works being neglected, devotion is false." 

Good works being neglected, being independent of the rest of 
the sentence, is the case absolute, according to the fifth note of 
Rule i. Devotion is a common substantive, (Repeat the number, 
person, and case.) Is is an irregular verb neuter. (Repeat ifie 
mood, tense, person, fyc.) False is an adjective in the positive 
state, and belongs to its substantive "devotion" understood, 
agreeably to Rule viii. which says, &c. 

"The emperor, Marcus Aurelius, was a wise and virtuous 
prince." 

The is the definite article. Emperor is a common substantive, 
of the masculine gender, the third person, the singular number, 
and in the nominative case. Marcus Aurelius is a proper name 
or substantive, and in the nominative case, because it is put in 
apposition with the substantive " emperor," agreeably to the 
first note of Rule x. Was is an irregular verb neuter, indicative 
mood, imperfect tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative case " emperor." A is the indefinite article. 
Wise is an adjective, and belongs to its substantive " prince." 
And is a copulative conjunction. Virtuous is an adjective, and 
belongs, &c. Prince is a common substantive, and in the nomina- 
tive case, agreeably to the fourth note of Rule xi. 
" To err is human." 

To err, is the infinitive mood, and the nominative case to the 
verb " is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present 
tense, and the third person singular, agreeing with its nomi- 
native case " to err," agreeably to Note i. under Rule the first. 
Human is an adjective, and belongs to its substantive "nature" 
understood, according to Rule viii. which says, &c. 

" To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is 
scarcely one remove from actually committing them " 

To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is part of 
a sentence, which is the nominative case to the verb "is." Is 
is an irregular verb neuter, &c. agreeing with the aforementioned 
part of a sentence, as its nominative case, agreeably to Note i. 
under Rule the first. Scarcely is an adverb. One is a numeral 
adjective agreeing with its substantive " remove." Remove is 
a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, 
the singular number, and in the nominative case, agreeably to 
7* 



5t person, and the 
er, be analyzed in 
rerb active, in the 
lural number, and 
tood : as, " do you 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the fourth note of Rule xi. From is a preposition. Committing 
is the present participle of the regular active verb " to commit." 
Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural 
number, and in the objective case, governed by the participle 
" committing,'' agreeably to Rule xiv. which says, &c. 
u Let me proceed." 

This sentence, according to the statement of grammarians in 
general, is in the imperative mood, of the first person, and the 
singular number. The sentence may, however, be analyzed in 
the following manner. Let is an irregular verl 
imperative mood, of the second person, the plu 
agrees with its nominative case "you" understood: 
let." Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the singular 
number, and in the objective case, governed by the active verb 
" let," agreeably to Rule xi. which says, &c. Proceed is a regu- 
lar verb neuter, in the infinitive mood, governed by the preceding 
verb "let," according to Rule xn. which says, &c. 

c * Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health. By 
living frugally and temperately, health is preserved." 

Living expensively and luxuriously, is the nominative case to 
the verb " destroys," agreeably to Note i. under Rule i. Living 
frugally and temperately, is a substantive phrase in the objective 
case, governed by the preposition " by," according to Note n, un- 
der Rule xiv. 

The preceding specimens of parsing, if carefully studied by 
the learner, seem to be sufficiently explicit, to enable him to 
comprehend the nature of this employment : and sufficiently di- 
versified, to qualify him, in other exercises, to point out and 
apply the remaining rules, both principal and subordinate. 



PART IV. 
PROSODY 

Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches the 
true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quan- 
tity, emphasis, pause, and tone ; and the latter, the law3 

Of VERSIFICATION. 



CHAPTER T. 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 

SECTION I. Of decent 
Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice, 
on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be 
better heard than the rest or distinguished from them : as. 






Accent.] PROSODY 155 

in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the 
letter u> and second syllable, sume, which take the accent 

As words may be formed of a different number of syllables; 
from one to eight or nine, it was necessary to have some peculiar 
mark to distinguish words from mere syllables ; otherwise 
speech would be only a continued succession of syllables, with- 
out conveying ideas ; for, as words are the marks of ideas, any 
confusion in the marks, must cause the same in the ideas for 
which they stand. It was therefore necessary, that the mind 
should at once perceive what number of syllables belongs to 
each word, in utterance. This might be done by a perceptible 
pause at the end of each word in speaking, as we form a certain 
distance between them in writing and printing. But this would 
make discourse extremely tedious ; and though it might render 
words distinct, would make the meaning of sentences confused. 
Syllables might also be sufficiently distinguished by a certain 
elevation or depression of voice upon one syllable of each word, 
which was the practice of some nations. But the English tongue 
nas, for this purpose, adopted a mark of the easiest and simplest 
kind, which is called accent, and which effectually answers the 
end. 

Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, has 
one of them distinguished from the rest in this manner ; and 
some writers assert, that every monosyllable of two or more let 
ters, has one of its letters thus distinguished. 

Accent is either principal or secondary. The principal accent 
is that which necessarily distinguishes one syllable in a word 
from the rest. The secondary accent is that stress which we 
may occasionally place upon another syllable, besides that which 
has the principal accent; in order to pronounce every part of 
the word more distinctly, forcibly, and harmoniously: thus, 
"Complaisant, caravan," and " violin," have frequently an accent 
on the first as well as on the last syllable, though a somewhat 
less forcible one. The same may be observed of "Repartee, re- 
feree, privateer, domineer," &c. But it must be observed, that 
though an accent is allowed on the first syllable of these words, 
it is by no means necessary ; they may all be pronounced with 
one accent, and that on the last syllable, without the least devia- 
tion from propriety. 

As emphasis evidently points out the most significant word in 
a sentence ; so, where other reasons do not forbid, the accent al- 
ways dwells with greatest foroe on that part of the word which, 
from its importance, the hearer has always the greatest occasion 
to observe : and this is necessarily the root or body of the word. 
But as harmony of termination frequently attracts the accent 
from the root to the branches of words, so the first and most na- 
tural law of accentuation seems to operate less in fixing the 
stress than any other. Our own Saxon terminations, indeeil, 
with perfect uniformity, leave the principal part of the word in 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Sect. i. 

quiet possession of what seems its lawful property ; but Latin 
and Greek terminations, of which our language is full, assume a 
right of preserving their original at ent, and subject almost eve*y 
word they bestow upon us to their wn classical laws. 

Accent, therefore, seems to be regulated in a great measure 
by etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent is general- 
ly on the root ; in words from the learned languages, it is gene- 
rally on the termination ; and if to these we add the different 
accent we lay on some words, to distinguish them from others, 
we seem to have the three great principles of accentuation ; 
namely, the radical, the terminational, and the distinctive. The 
radical: as, "Love, lovety, loveliness;" the terminational: as, 
44 Harmony, harmonious ;" the distinctive: as, "Convert to 
convert." 

Accent on Dissyllables. 

Words of two syllables have necessarily one of them accented, 
and but one. It is true, for the sake of emphasis, we sometimes 
lay an equal stress upon two successive syllables : as, " Di-rect, 
some-times ;" but when these words are pronounced alone, they 
have never more than one accent. The word "a-men," is ths 
only word which is pronounced with two accents when alone. 

Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former 
syllable is commonly accented: as, "Childish, kingdom, aetest, 
acted, toilsome, lover, scoffer, fairer, foremost, zealous, fulness, 
meekly, artist." 

Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical 
word, have commonly the accent on thejatter: as, " To beseem, 
to bestow, to return." 

Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has 
commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former 
syllable : as, " To cement, a cement ; to contract, a contract ; to 
presage, a presage." 

This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have 
their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter 
syllable : as, " Delight, perfume." Those nouns which, in the 
common order of language, must have preceded the verbs, often 
transmit their accent to the verbs they form, and inversely. 
Thus, the noun " water" must have preceded the verb " to water," 
as the verb " to correspond," must have preceded the noun "cor- 
respondent :" and "to pursue" claims priority to " pursuit." So 
that we may conclude, wherever verbs deviate from the rule, it 
is seldom by chance, and generally in those words only where a 
superior law of accent takes place. 

All dissyllables ending in y, our, ow, le, ish, ck, ter, age, en, et : 
as, " Cranny, labour, willow, wallow ;" except " allow, avow, 
endow, below, bestow ;" " battle, banish, cambric, batter, cou- 
rage, fasten, quiet ;" accent the former syllable. 

Dissyllable nouns in er t as, " Canker, butter," have the accent 
on the former syllable 

Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant and c final, as. 



Accent.] PROSODY. 157 

44 Comprise, escape ;" or having a diphthong in the last syllable, 
as, " Appease, reveal;" or ending in two consonants ; as, "At- 
tend ;" have the accents on the latter syllable. 

Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the latter syllable, 
have commonly their accent on the latter syllable ; as, " Ap- 
plause ;" except some words in ain : as, u Villain, curtain, 
mountain." 

Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated in the 
pronunciation, have always the accent on the first syllable : as, 
" Lion, riot, quiet, lfar, ruin ;" except " create." 

Accent on Trisyllables. 

Trisyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a 
syllable, retain the accent of the radical word : as, " Loveliness, 
tenderness, contemner, wagoner, physical, bespatter, comment- 
ing, commending, assurance." 

Trisyllables ending in ous, al, ion : as, " arduous, capital, 
mention," accent the first. 

Trisyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syllable: 
as, "Countenance, continence, armament, imminent, elegant, pro- 
pagate ;" unless they are derived from words having the accent 
on the last: as, " Connivance, acquaintance;" and unless the 
middle syllable has a vowel before two consonants : as, " Pro- 
mulgate." 

Trisyllables ending in y, as, " entity, specify, liberty, victory, 
subsidy," commonly accent the first syllable. 

Trisyllables ending in re or Ze, accent the first syllable : as, 
" Legible, theatre;" except " Disciple," and some words which 
have a preposition: as, "Example, indenture." 

Trisyllables ending in ude, commonly accent the first syllable: 
as, " Plenitude, habitude, rectitude." 

Trisyllables ending in ator, have the accent on the middle 
syllable ; as, " Spectator, creator," &c. : except " orator, senator, 
barrator, legator." 

Trisyllables which have in the middle syllable a diphthong, 
as, " Endeavour;" or a vowel before two consonants ; as, "Do- 
mestic;" accent the middle syllable. 

Trisyllables that have their accent on the last syllable, are 
commonly French: as, "Acquiesce, repartee, magazine ;" or 
they are words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to a 
long syllable : as, " Immature, overcharge." 

Accent on Polysyllables. 

Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, generally 
follow the accent of the words from which they are derived : 
as, " arrogating, continency, incontinently, commendable, com- 
municableness." 

Words ending in ator have the accent generally on the penul- 
timate, or last syllable but one : as, " Emendator, gladiator. 
e«|*aivocator, prevaricator." 

Words ending in le common! v have the accent on the fi*st syl- 

O 



.58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. 11. 

lable : as, " amicable, despicable :" unless the second syllable has 
a vowel before two consonants : as, " Combustible, condemnable." 

Words ending in ion, ous, and ty. have their accent on the 
antepenultimate, or last syllable but two : as, " Salvation, vic- 
torious, activity." 

Words which end in ia, io, and cal, have the accent on the 
antepenult: as, "Cyclopaedia, punctilio, despotical." 

The rules respecting accent, are not advanced as complete or 
infallible: they are merely proposed as useful. Almost every 
rule of every language has its exceptions ; and, in English, as in 
other tongues, much must be learned by example and authority. 

It may be further observed, that though the syllable on which 
the principal accent is placed, is fixed and certain, yet we may, 
and do, frequently make the secondary principal, and the prin- 
cipal secondary: thus, "Caravan, complaisant, violin, repartee, 
referee, privateer, domineer," may all have the greater stress on 
the first, and the less on the last syllable, without any violent 
offence to the ear: nay, it may be asserted, that the principal 
accent on the first syllable of these words, and none at all on the 
last, though certainly improper, has nothing in it grating or dis 
cordant ; but placing an accent on the second syllable of these 
words would entirely derange them, and produce great harsh- 
ness and dissonance. The same observations may be applied 
to " demonstration, lamentation, provocation, navigator, propa- 
gator, alligator," and every similar word in the language. 

SECTION II. Of quantity. 
The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied 
in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the 
vowel ; which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronun- 
ciation with the following letters : as, " Fall, bale, mood, 
house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; 
which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the suc- 
ceeding letter : as, " ant, bonnet, hunger." 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a 
short one in pronouncing it : thus, " Mate" and " Note" 
should be pronounced as slowly again as " Mat" and "Not." 
Unaccented syllables are generally short: as, " admire, bold- 
ness, sinner." But to this rule there are many exceptions: as, 
" also, exile, gangrene, umpire, foretaste," &c. 

When the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is often more 
or less short, as it ends with a single consonant, or with more 
than one: as, " Sadly, robber; persist, matchless." 

When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the syllable 
may be protracted, by dwelling upon the semi-vowel : as, " Cur' 
can', fulfil' :" but when the accent falls on a mute, the syRabla 



Quantity.] PROSODY 159 

cannot be lengthened in the same manner: as, "Bubble, cap- 
tain, totter." 

The quantity of vowels has, in some measure, been considered 
under the first part of grammar, which treats of the different 
sounds of the letters; and therefore we shall dismiss this subject 
with a few general rules and observations. 

1st, All vowels under the principal accent, before the termi 
nations ia, io, and ion, preceded by a single consonant, are pro 
nounced long: as, " Regalia, folio, adhesion, explosion, confu 
sion :" except the vowel i, which in that situation is short : as,. 
" Militia, punctilio, decision, contrition. " The only exceptions 
to this rule seem to be " Discretion, battalion, gladiator, nation- 
al, and rational." 

2d, All vowels that immediately precede the terminations ity 
and ety, are pronounced long: as, "Deity, piety, spontaneity." 
But if one consonant precedes these terminations, every pre- 
ceding accented vowel is short ; except u, and the a in " scarci- 
ty." and " rarity;" as, " Polarity, severity, divinity, curiosity; — • 
impunity." Even u before two consonants contracts itself: as, 
* Curvity, taciturnity," &c. 

3d, Vowels urfder the principal accent, before the termina- 
tions ic and ical, preceded by a single consonant, are pronounced 
short; thus, " Satanic, pathetic, elliptic, harmonic," have the 
vowel short ; while " Tunic, runic, cubic," have the accented 
vowel long : and " Fanatical, poetical, levitical, canonical," have 
the vowel short ; but " Cubical, musical," &c. have the u long. 

4th, The vowel in the antepenultimate syllable of words, with 
the following terminations, is always pronounced short. 

loquy ; as, obloquy. parous; as, oviparous. 

strophe ; as, apostrophe. cracy ; as, aristocracy. 

meter ; as, barometer. gony ; as, cosmogony. 

gonal; as, diagonal. phony; as, symphony. 

vorous ; as, carnivorous. nbmy ; as, astronomy. 

ferous; as, somniferous. tomy ; as, anatomy. 

fluous , as, superfluous. pathy ; as, antipathy. 

fluent ; as, mellifluent. 

As no utterance which is void of proportion, can be agreeable 
to the ear; and as quantity, or proportion of time in utterance, 
greatly depends on a due attention to the accent; it is absolutely 
necessary for every person who would attain a just and pleasing 
delivery, to be master of that point. See this section in the Octavo 
Grammar. 

SECTION III. Of Emphasis. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, 
by which we distinguish some word or words on which we 
design to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect 
the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words 
must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well 
as by a greater stress. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. hi. 

On the right management of the emphasis depends the life of 
pronunciation. If no emphasis be placed on any words, not 
only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the mean- 
ing often left ambiguous. If the emphasis be placed wrong, we 
shall pervert and confound the meaning wholly. To give a 
common instance: such a simple question as this, "Do you ride 
to town to-day?" is capable of no fewer than four different ac- 
ceptations, according as the emphasis is differently placed on 
the words. If it be pronounced thus : " Do you ride to town 
to-day ?" the answer may naturally be, "No, we send a servant 
in our stead." If thus : " Do you ride to town to-day?" answer, 
44 No, we intend to walk." " Do you ride to town to-day ?" " No, 
we ride into the country." u Do you ride to town to-day ?" 
44 No, but we shall to-morrow." In like manner, in solemn dis- 
course, the whole force and beauty of an expression often depend 
on the emphatic word ; and we may present to the hearers quite 
different views of the same sentiment, by placing the emphasis 
differently. In the following words of our Saviour, observe in 
what different lights the thought is placed, according as the 
words are pronounced. " Judas, betrayest thou the son of man 
with a kiss ?" "Betrayest thou," makes the reproach turn on 
the infamy of treachery. <4 Betrayest thou, 11 makes it rest upon 
Judas's connexion with his master. " Betrayest thou the son of 
man, 11 rests it upon our Saviour's personal character and emi- 
nence. * 4 Betrayest thou the son of man with a kissT 1 turns it 
upon his prostituting the signal of peace and friendship to the 
purpose of destruction. 

The emphasis often lies on the word that asks a question : 
as, " Who said so ?" " When will he come ?" 4 < What shall I do ?" 
44 Whither shall I go ?" *' Why dost thou weep ?" And when two 
words are set in contrast, or in opposition to one another, they 
are both emphatic ; as, " He is the tyrant, not the father, of his 
people ;" " His subjects/ear him, but they do not love him." 

Some sentences are so full and comprehensive, that almost 
e^ery word is emphatical: as, 44 Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, 
woods, and plains :" or, as that pathetic expostulation in the 
prophecy of Ezekiel, " Why will ye die !" In the latter short 
sentence, every word is emphatical ; and on which ever word 
we lay the emphasis, whether on the first, second, third, or 
fourth, it strikes out a different sense, and opens a new subject 
of moving expostulation. 

As accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes 
it more distinguished by the ear than the rest ; so emphasis en- 
nobles the word to which it belongs, and presents it in a stronger 
light to the understanding. Were there no accents, words would 
be resolved into their original syllables: were thera no emphasis, 
sentences would be resolved into their original words; and, in 
this case, the hearer would be under the painful necessity first, of 
making out the words, and afterwards, their meaning. 

Emphasis is of two kinds, simple and complex. Simple when 



Emphasis.] , PROSODY 161 

it serves to point out only the plain meaning of any proposition ; 
complex, when, besides the meaning, it marks also some affection 
or emotion of the mind; or gives a meaning to words, which 
they would not have in their usual acceptation. In the former 
case, emphasis is scarcely more than a stronger accent, with 
little or no change of tone; when it is complex, besides force, 
there is always superadded a manifest change of tone. 

The following sentence contains an example of simple empha- 
sis: "And Nathan said to David, Thou art the man." The 
emphasis on thou, serves only to point out the meaning of the 
speaker. But in the sentence which follows, we perceive an 
emotion ofthe speaker superadded to the simple meaning : " Why 
will ye die !" 

As the emphasis often falls on words in different parts of the 
same sentence, so it is frequently required to be continued, with 
a little variation, on two, and sometimes three words together. 
The following sentence exemplifies both the parts of this posi- 
tion : " If you seek to make one rich, study not to increase his 
stores, but to diminish his desires." Emphasis may be further 
distinguished, into the weaker and the stronger emphasis. In 
the sentence, "Exercise and temperance strengthen the con- 
stitution ;" we perceive more force on the word strengthen, than 
on any other; though it is not equal to the stress which we 
apply to the word indifferent, in the following sentence : " Exer- 
cise and temperance strengthen even an indifferent constitution/' 
It is also proper to remark, that the words exercise, temperance, 
constitution, in the last example but one, are pronounced with 
greater force, than the particles and and the ; and yet those words 
cannot properly be called emphatical : for the stress that is laid 
on them, is no more than sufficient to convey distinctly the mean- 
ing of each word. — From these observations it appears, that the, 
smaller parts of speech, namely, the articles, conjunctions, pre- 
positions, &;c. are, in general, obscurely and feebly expressed ; 
that the substantives, verbs, and more significant words, are 
firmly and distinctly pronounced ; and that the emphatical words, 
those which mark the meaning of a phrase, are pronounced with 
peculiar stress and energy, though varied according to the 
degree of their importance. 

Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of 
quantity. Though the quantity of our syllables is fixed, in 
words separately pronounced, yet it is mutable, when these wcrds 
are ranged in sentences; the long being changed into short the 
short into long, according to the importance of the words with 
regard to meaning : and as it is by emphasis only, that the mean 
mg can be pointed out, emphasis must be the regulator of thn 
quantity. A few examples will make this point very evident. 
Pleas'd thou shalt hea k * — and learn the secret power, &c. 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and thou aldne shalt hear — 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — in spite of them shalt hear — 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — though not behold the fair — 
02 






IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect hi 

In the first of these instances, the words pUas^d and Mar, be- 
ing equally emphatical, are both long; whilst the two interme- 
diate words, thou and shalt, being rapidly passed over, as the 
sense demands, are reduced to a short quantity. 

In the second instance, the word thou by being the most im- 
portant, obtains the chief, or rather the sole emphasis ; and thus, 
it is not only restored to its natural long quantity, but obtains 
from emphasis a still greater degree of length, than when pro- 
nounced in its separate state. This greater degree of length, 
is compensated by the diminution of quantity in the words pleased 
and hear, which are sounded shorter than in the preceding in- 
stance. The word shalt still continues short. Here we may 
also observe, that though thou is long in the first part of the 
verse, it becomes short when repeated in the second, on account 
of the more forcible emphasis belonging to the word alone, which 
follows it. 

In the third instance, the word shalt having the emphasis, 
obtains a long quantity. And though it is impossible to pro- 
long the sound of this word, as it ends in a pure mute, yet in 
this, as in all similar instances, the additional quantity is to be 
made out by a rest of the voice, proportioned to the importance 
of the word. In this instance, we may also observe, that the 
word shalt, repeated in the second part of the line, is reduced 
again to a short quantity. 

In the fourth instance, the word hear placed in opposition to 
the word behold, in the latter part of the line, obtains from the 
sense the chief emphasis, and a proportionate length. The words 
thou and shalt, are again reduced to short quantities ; and the 
word pleased lends some of the time which it possessed, to the 
more important word hear. 

From these instances, it is evident, that the quantity of our 
syllables is not fixed ; but governed by emphasis. — To observe a 
due measurement of time, on all occasions, is doubtless very 
difficult ; but by instruction, attention, and practice, the difficulty 
may be overcome. 

Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and sylla- 
bles, but also, in particular cases, the seat of the accent. This is 
demonstrable from the following examples. 

" He shall increase, but I shall decrease." " There is a differ- 
ence between giving and /orgiving." " In this species of com- 
position, plausibility is much more essential than probability." In 
these examples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on 
syllables, to which it does not commonly belong. 

In order to acquire the proper management of the emphasis, 
the great rule, and indeed the only rule possible to be given, is, 
that the speaker or reader study to attain a just conception of the 
force and spirit of the sentiments which he is to pronounce. For 
to lay the emphasis with exact propriety, is a constant exercise 
of good sense and attention. It is far from being an inconsidera- 
ble attainment. It is one of the greatest trials of a true and just 



Pauses.] PROSOD1. 1G3 

taste ; and must arise from feeling delicately ourselves, and from 
judging accurately, of what is fittest to strike the feelings of others, 
^"here is one error, against which it is particularly proper to 
caution the learner ; namely, that of multiplying emphatical 
words too much. It is only by a prudent reserve in the use of 
them that we can give them any weight. If they recur too often ; if 
a speaker or reader attempts to render every thing which he ex- 
presses of high importance, by a multitude of strong emphases, 
we soon learn to pay little regard to them. To crowd every 
sentence with emphatical words, is like crowding all the pages 
of a book with Italic characters, which, as to the effect, is just the 
same as to use no such distinctions at all. 

SECTION IV. Of Pauses. 
Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total ces- 
sation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many 
cases, a measurable space of time. 

Pauses are equally necessary to the speaker, and the hearer. 
To the speaker, that he may take breath, without which he can- 
not proceed far in delivery ; and that he may, by these temporary 
rests, relieve the organs of speech, which otherwise would be soon 
tired by continued action : to the hearer that the ear also may 
be relieved from the fatigue, which it would otherwise endure 
from a continuity of sound ; and that the understanding may have 
sufficient time to mark the distinction of sentences, and their se- 
veral members. 

There are two kinds of pauses : first, emphatical pauses ; and 
next, such as mark the distinctions of the sense. An emphatical 
pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, 
and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention. Sometimes, 
before such a thing is said, we usher it in with a pause of this na- 
ture. Such pauses have the same effect as a strong emphasis ; 
and are subject to the same rules; especially to the caution just 
now given, of not repeating them too frequently. For as they 
excite uncommon attention, and of course raise expectation, if 
the importance of the matter is not fully answerable to such ex- 
pectation, they occasion disappointment and disgust. 

But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, to 
mark the divisions of the sense, and at the same time to allow 
the speaker to draw his breath ; and the proper and delicate ad- 
justment of such pauses, is one of the most nice and difficult ar- 
ticles of delivery. In all reading, and public speaking, the ma- 
nagement of the breath requires a good deal of care, so as not to 
oblige us to divide words from one another, which have so inti- 
mate a connexion, that they ought to be pronounced with the 
same breath, and without the least separation. Many sentences 
are miserably mangled, and the force of the emphasis totally lost, 
by the divisions being made in the wrong place. To avoid this, 
every one, while he is speaking or reading, should be very care- 
ful to provide a full supply of breath for what he is to utter. It is 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, iv 

a great mistake to imagine, that the breath must be drawn only 
at the end of a period, when the voice is allowed to fall. It may 
easily be gathered at the intervals of the period, when the voifc 
is only suspended for a moment ; and, by this management, one 
may always have a sufficient stock for carrying on the longest 
sentence, without improper interruptions. 

Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed upon 
tne manner in which we utter ourselves m ordinary, sensible 
conversation ; and not upon the stiff artificial manner which we 
acquire, from reading books according to the common punctua- 
tion. It will by no means be sufficient to attend to the points used 
in printing; for these are far from marking all the pauses which 
ought to be made in speaking. A mechanical attention to these 
resting-places has perhaps been one cause of monotony, by lead- 
ing the reader to a similar tone at every stop, and a uniform ca- 
dence at every period. The primary use of points is, to assist the 
reader in discerning the grammatical construction ; and it is only 
as a secondary object, that they regulate his pronunciation. 

To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only 
be made in the right place, but also accompanied with a proper 
tone of voice, by which the nature of these pauses is intimated ; 
much more than by the length of them, which can seldom be 
exactly measured. Sometimes it is only a slight and simple sus- 
pension of voice that is proper ; sometimes a degree of cadence 
in the voice is required ; and sometimes that peculiar tone and 
cadence which denote the sentence to be finished. In all these 
cases, we are to regulate ourselves, by attending to the manner 
in which nature teaches us to speak, when engaged in real and 
earnest discourse with others. 

It is a general rule, that the suspending pause should be used 
when the sense is incomplete; and the closing pause, when it is 
finished. But there are phrases, in which, though the sense is 
not completed, the voice takes the closing, rather than the sus- 
pending pause ; and others, in which the sentence finishes by the 
pause of suspension. 

The closing pause must not be confounded with that fall of the 
voice, or cadence, with which many readers uniformly finish a 
sentence. Nothing is more destructive of propriety and energy 
than this habit. The tones and inflections of the voice at the 
close of a sentence, ought to be diversified, according to the 
general nature of the discourse, and the particular construc- 
tion and meaning of the sentence. In plain narrative, and es- 
pecially in argumentation, a small attention to the manner in 
which we relate a fact, or maintain an argument, in conversa- 
tion, will show, that it is frequently more proper to raise the 
voice, than to let it fall, at the end of a sentence. Some sen- 
tences are so constructed, that the last words require a stronger 
emphasis than any of the preceding ; while others admit of being 
closed with a soft and gentle sound. Where there is nothing in 
the sense which requires the last sound to be elevcued or em- 



tones ] PROSODY. 165 

phatical, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, 
will be proper. And in pathetic pieces, especially those of the 
plaintive, tender, or solemn kind, the tone of the passion will of- 
ten require a still greater cadence of the voice. The best me- 
thod of correcting a uniform cadence, is frequently to read select 
sentences, in which the style is pointed, and in which antitheses 
are frequently introduced: and argumentative pieces, or such as 
abound with interrogatives, or earnest exclamation. 

SECTION V. Of Tones. 
Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses 
consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or vari- 
ations of sound which we employ in the expression of our 
sentiments. 

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a degree 
of tone or inflection of the voice ; but tones, peculiarly so called, 
affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even the whole of 
a discourse. 

To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only observe, 
that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a continual state 
of activity, emotion, or agitation, from the different effects which 
those ideas produce in the speaker. Now the end of such com- 
munication being, not merely to lay open the ideas, but also the 
different feelings which they excite in him who utters them, 
there must be other signs than words, to manifest those feelings; 
as words uttered in a monotonous manner, can represent only a 
similar state of mind, perfectly free from all activity or emotion. 
As the communication of these internal feelings, was of much 
more consequence in our social intercourse, than the mere con- 
veyance of ideas, the Author of our being did not, as in that 
conveyance, leave the invention of the language of emotion, to 
man ; but impressed it himself upon our nature in the same man- 
ner as he has done with regard to the rest of the animal world ; 
all of which express their various feelings, by various tones. 
Ours indeed, from the superior rank that we hold, are in a high 
degree more comprehensive ; as there is not an act of the mind, 
an exertion of the fancy, or an emotion of the heart, which has 
not its peculiar tone, or note of the voice, by which it is to be ex- 
pressed ; and which is suited exactly to the degree of internal 
feeling. It is chiefly in the proper use of these tones, that the 
life, spirit, beauty, and harmony of delivery consist. 

An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over Saul 
and Jonathan, may serve as an example of what has been said 
on this subject. "The beauty of Israel is slain upon thy high 
places. How are the mighty fallen ! Tell it not in Gath ; publish 
it not in the streets of Askelon : lest the daughters of the Philis- 
tines rejoice ; lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph 
Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew, nor rain upon you, 
nor fields of offerings; for there the shield of the mighty was 



1G6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versification 

vilely cast away ; the shield of Saul, as though he had not been 
anointed with oil 1" The first of these divisions expresses sorrow 
and lamentation ; therefore the note is low. The next contains 
a spirited command, and should be pronounced much higher. 
The other sentence, in which he makes a pathetic address to the 
mountains where his friends were slain, must be expressed in a 
note quite different from the two former; not so low as the first, 
nor so high as the second, in a manly, firm, and yet plaintive tone.* 

This correct and natural language of the emotions, is not 50 
difficult to be attained, as most readers seem to imagine. If we 
enter into the spirit of the author's sentiments, as well as into 
the meaning of his words, we shall not fail to deliver the words 
in properly varied tones. For there are few people, who speak 
English without a provincial tone, that have not an accurate use 
of emphasis, pauses, and tones, when they utter their sentiments 
in earnest discourse : and the reason that they have not the same 
use of them, in reading aloud the sentiments of others, may be 
traced to the very defective and erroneous method, in which the 
art of reading is taught ; whereby ali the various, natural, ex- 
pressive tones of speech, are suppressed, and a few artificial, 
unmeaning, reading notes, are substituted for them. 

But when we recommend to readers an attention to the tone 
and language of emotions, we must be understood to do it with 
proper limitation. Moderation is necessary in this point, as it 
is in other things. For when reading becomes strictly imitative, 
it assumes a theatrical manner, and must be highly improper, as 
well as give offence to the hearers ; because it is inconsistent 
with that delicacy and modesty, which, on all occasions, are 
indispensable. 

CHAPTER II. 
OF VERSIFICATION 

As there are few persons who do not sometimes read poetical 
composition, it seems necessary to give the student some idea of 
that part of grammar, which explains the principles of versifi- 
cation ; that, in reading poetry, he may be the better able to 
judge of its correctness, and relish its beauties. When this lively 
mode of exhibiting nature and sentiment, is perfectly chaste, it 
is often found to be highly interesting and instructive. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number 
and variety of syllables, according to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one 
verse, to the last sound or syllable of another. 

Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. We 
shall consider these separately. 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. They 
re caVed feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as i t were , 

* Herries. 



Wmmmnci MtOflODl- 

cteps a sored pace : and 

• 
i - - . . - 

a was made among tike Roman?, 

by d, 

in sound! . 
■ 

- the more important, marked the bm 
la are divided into ac : i 
. ■ 
:. by the e upon them, are equally 

g the movement, and p 

ng the Romans. 

just quantity in £ - 

ail ti bad not. 

r pleasure. 

Ev- : ; : -t ; : . : 

! and right appli: 

ad. 
Al 1 : - - 

and are i idnds ; four c: ?. and 

5 : 

MSSTUASU TRISTI.I-AEII 

A Trochee- - A Dactyl- - - 

Ar. I - - An.- 

A ; : — An Ana:::-?: - - — 

A Pyrrhic u - A Tribrach - - - 

A Trochee has I 

An 3 
ed: as, "J 

A Spondee has both the * as, "The 

A Pyrrhic ha? both the words cr 

A Dactyl has the f: ted, and the two fa 

unaccented: as, 

An . rach has the 

le one accent- 

An = the two izr ; 

last accented : a?. "C: 

A 7. /.as all its as. ■ X" 

: ?e feet may be ieaoi : : t3 

I pieces of poetry m i ned of any of them. 



. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versification 

Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and Anapaest. The 
others may be termed stcondai-y feet; because their chief use is 
to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 

We shall first explain the nature of the principal feet. 

IAMBIC verses may be divided into several species, according 
to the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed. 

1 The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an 
Iambus, with an additional short syllable : as, 

Disdaining, 

Complaining, 

Consenting, 

Repenting, 
We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with in 
stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the 
Amphibrach. 

2 The second form of our Iambic is also too short to be continu- 
ed through any great number of lines. It consists of two Iambuses 

What place is here ! 
What scenes appear ! 
To me the rose 
No longer glows. 
It sometimes takes, or may take, an additional short syllable ; as, 
Upon a mountain 
Beside a fountain. 

3 The third form consists of three Iambuses. 

In places far or near, 
Or famous or obscure, 
Where wholesome is the air, 
Or where the most impure. 
It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable: as, 
Our hearts no longer languish. 

4 The fourth form is made up of four Iambuses. 

And may at last my weary age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

5 The fifth species of English Iambic, consists of Jive Iambuses. 

How lov'd, how valu'd once, avails thee not, 

To whom related, or by whom begot: 

A heap of dust alone remains of thee; 

'Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 

Be wise to-day, 'tis madness to defer : 

Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 

Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
This is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form it con- 
sists of five Iambuses ; but by the admission of other feet, as 
Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, &c. it is capable of many varieties. 
Indeed, most of the English common measures may be varied in 
the same way, as well as by the different position ofaheir pauses. 

6 The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called the Alex 
andrine measure. It consists of six Iambuses. 

For thou art but of dust ; be humble and be wise. 






Versification.] PROSODY. 169 

The x41exandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme; 
and when used sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an 
agreeable variety. 

The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay, 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ; 
But fix'd his word, his saving pow'r remains : 
Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns, 
7 The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure, is made 
up of seven Iambuses. 

The Lord descended from above, 
And bow'd the heavens high. 
This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now broken 
into two ; the first containing four feet, and the second three : 
When all thy mercies, O my God ! 

My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost 
In wonder, love, and praise. 
In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on even syl- 
lables ; and every line considered by itself, is, in general, more 
melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed. 

TROCHAIC verse is of several kinds. 

1 The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, consists of 
one Trochee and a long syllable. 

Tumult cease, 

Sink to peace. 
This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used on 
serious occasions. 

2 The second English form of the Trochaic consists of two 
feet ; and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely used for any very 
serious purpose. 

On the mountain 

By a fountain. 
It sometimes contains two feet or trochees, with an additional 
long syllable ^ as, 

In the days of old 

Fables plainly told. 

3 The third species consists of three trochees : as, 

When our hearts are mourning : 
or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable ; as, 
Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought ; 
Bliss, a native of the sky, 
Never wanders. Mortals, try ; 
There you cannot seek in vain ; 
For to seek her is to gain. 

4 The fourth Trochaic species consists of four trochees: ao, 

Round us roars the tempest louder. 
Their form may take an additional long syllable, as follows 
8 






170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Versification 

Idle after dinner in Iris chair, 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
But this measure is very uncommon. 

5 The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncommon. It is 
composed of Jive trochees. 

All that walk on foot or ride in chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6 The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of six 
trochees : as, 

On a mountain, stretch'd beneath a hoary willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and view'd the rolling billow. 
This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that our language 
admits. 

In all these Trochaic measures, the accent is to be placed on 
the odd syllables. 

The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, we shall 
give only one example of one species of it: 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature, 
^ Rise we to higher, &c. 
ANAPAESTIC verses are divided into several species. 

1 The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single anapaest: as, 

But in vain, 
They complain. 
This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying the stress 
of the voice on the first and third syllables, we might make a 
trochaic. And therefore the first and simplest form of our ge- 
nuine Anapaestic verse, is made up of two Anapaests: as, 
But his courage 'gan fail, 
For no arts could avail. 
This form admits of an additional short syllable. 
Then his courage 'gan fail him, 
For no arts could avail him. 

2 The second species consists of three Anapaests 

ye woods, spread your branches apace ; 
To your deepest recesses I fly ; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chace ; 
I would vanish from every eye. 

This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both in so- 
lemn and cheerful subjects. 

3 The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of/out 
Anapaests. 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway ; 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end : as, 
On the warm cheek of youth, smiles and roses are blending. 
The preceding are the different kinds of the principal feet, in 
their more simple forms. They are capable of numerous varia- 
tions, by the intermixture of those feet with each other; and by 
the admission of the secondary feet. 



Versification.} PROSODY. 17* 

We have observed, that English verse is composed of feet 
formed by accent ; and that when the accent falls on vowels, the 
feet are equivalent to those formed by quantity. That the stu- 
dent may clearly perceive this difference, we shall produce a 
specimen of each kind. 

O'er heaps of ruins stalk'd the stately hind. 

Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each second sylla- 
ble. In the following line, we shall find the same Iambic move- 
ment, but formed by accent on consonants, except the last syl- 
lable. 

Then rustling, crackling, crashing thunder down. 

Here the time of the short accented syllables, is compensated 
by a short pause, at the end of each word to which they belong. 

We now proceed to show the manner in which poetry is va- 
ried and improved, by the admission of secondary feet into its 
composition. 

Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. 

The first foot here is a Dactyl ; the rest are Iambics. 
O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp. 

This line contains three Amphibrachs mixed with Iambics. 
Innumerable before th' Almighty's throne. 

Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribrach. 

See the bold youth strain up the threat'ning steep. 

In this line, the first foot is a Trochee ; the second a genuine 
Spondee by quantity ; the third a Spondee by accent. 

In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the second a 
Spondee. 

That on weak wings from far pursues your flight. 

From the preceding view of English versification, we may 
see what a copious stock of materials it possesses. For we are 
not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet, in our he- 
roic measure, but we have, as before observed, duplicates of 
each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure,* and 
which make different impressions on the ear ; an opulence pe- 
culiar to our language, and which may be the source of a bound- 
less variety. 

Of Poetical Pauses. 

There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, and one for me- 
lody, perfectly distinct from each other. The former may be 
called sentential, the latter harmonic pauses. 

The sentential pauses are those which are known to us by the 
name of stops, and which have names given them ; as the comma, 
semicolon, colon, and period. 

The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the final pause, 
and the ciesural pause. These sometimes coincide with the sen- 
tential pause, sometimes have an independent state, that is, exist 
where there is no stop in the sense. 

* Movement and measure are thus distinguished. Movement expresses the 
progressive order of sounds, whether from strong to weak, from long to short, 
or vice versa. Measure signifies the pi iportion of time, both in sounds and pauses* 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versification 

The final pause takes place at the end of the fine, closes the 
verse, and marks the measure : the caesural divides it into equal 
or unequal parts. 

The final pause preserves the melody, without interfering with 
the sense. For the pause itself perfectly marks the bound of the 
metre; and being made only by a suspension of the voice, not by 
any change of note, it can never affect the sense. This is not 
the only advantage gained to numbers, by this final pause or stop 
of suspension. It also prevents that monotony, that sameness of 
note at the end of lines, which, however pleasing to a rude, is 
disgusting to a delicate ear. For as this final pause has no pe- 
culiar note of its own, but always takes that which belongs to the 
preceding word, it changes continually with the matter, and is 
as various as the sense. 

It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, marks the 
difference between prose and verse ; which will be evident from 
the following arrangement of a few poetical lines. 

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden 
tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all 
our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater man restore us, and 
regain the blissful seat, sing heavenly muse !" 

A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was 
verse ; but would take it for poetical prose. By properly adjusting 
the final pause,we shall restore the passage to its true state of verse 
Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our wo, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly muse ! 
These examples show the necessity of reading blank verse, in 
such a manner, as to make every line sensible to the ear ; for, 
what is the use of melody, or for what end has the poet composed 
in verse, if, in reading his lines, we suppress his numbers, by 
omitting the final pause ; and degrade them, by our pronuncia- 
tion, into mere prose ? 

The Caesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable 
of heroic verse. 

On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot : as, 
The silver eel" in shining volumes roll'd, 
The yellow carp" in scales bedropp'd with gold. 
On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot: as, 
Round broken columns" clasping ivy twin'd, 
O'er heaps of ruin" stalk'd the stately hind. 
On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot : as, 
Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexplor'd, 
Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. 
A line may be divided into three portions, by two caesuras: as. 
Outstretch'd he lay" on the cold ground" and oft" 
Look'd up to heav'n. 



VEiuiyicA^oif.] PROSODY. 173 

There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited to the na- 
ture of the couplet, by introducing semi -pauses, which divide the 
line into four pauses. This semi-pause may be called a demi-ccesura 
The following lines admit of, and exemplify it. 

Glows' while he reads'' but trembles' as he writes. 
Reason' the card" but passion' is the gale. 
Rides' in the whirlwind" and directs' the storm. 

Of Melody, Harmony, and Expression. 

Having shown the general nature of feet and pauses, the con- 
stituent parts of verse, we shall now point out, more particularly, 
their use and importance. 

Melody, harmony, and expression, are the three great objects 
of poetic numbers. By melody, is meant, a pleasing effect pro- 
duced on the ear, from an apt arrangement of the constituent 
parts of verse, according to the laws of measure and movement. 
'By harmony, an effect produced by an action of the mind, in com- 
paring the different members of a verse with each other, and 
perceiving a due and beautiful proportion between them. By 
expression, such a choice and arrangement of the constituent 
parts of verse, as serve to enforce and illustrate the thought or 
the sentiment. 

We shall consider each of these three objects in versification, 
both with respect to the feet and the pauses. 

1st. With regard to melody. 

From the examples which we have given of verses composed 
in all the principal feet, it is evident that a considerable portion 
of melody is found in each of them, though in different degrees. 
Verses made up of pure Iambics have an excellent melody. 

That the final and caesural pauses contribute to melody, cannot 
be doubted by any person who reviews the instances which we 
have already given of those pauses. To form lines of the first 
melody, the caesura must be at the end of the second, or of the 
third foot, or in the middle of the third. 

2d, With respect to harmony. 

Verses composed of Iambics have indeed a fine harmony ; but 
as the stress of the voice, in repeating such verses, is always in 
the same places, that is, on every second syllable, such a unifor 
mity would disgust the ear in a long succession ; and therefore 
such changes were sought for, as might introduce the pleasure 
of vari^ty^without prejudice to melody; or which might even 
contribute to its improvement. Of this nature was the introduc- 
tion of the Trochee, to form the first foot of an heroic verse: as. 
Favours to none, to all she smiles extends, 
O'ft she rejects, but never once offends. 

Each of these lines begins with a Trochee; the remaining 
feet are in the Iambic movement. In the following line of the 
same movement, the fourth foot is a Trochee. 

All these our notions vain, sees and derides. 

The next change admitted for the sake of variety, without 

P 9 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versif catiojt- 

prejudice to melody, is the intermixture of Pyrrhics and Spon 
dees ; in which, two impressions in the one foot make up for the 
want of one in the other; and two long syllables compensate 
two short ones, so as to make the sum of the quantity of the two. 
feet, equal to two Iambics. 

On the green bank to look mto the clear 
Smooth lake that to me seem'd another sky. 
Stood rul'd stood vast, infinitude confin'd. 
The next variety admitted is that of the Amphibrach. 

Which many a bard had chaunted many a day. 
In this line, we find that two of the feet are amphibrachs ; and 
three, Iambics. 

We have before shown that the caesura improves the melody 
of verse; and we shall now speak of its other more important 
office, that of being the chief source of harmony in numbers. 

The first and lowest perception of harmony, by means of the* 
caesura, arises from comparing two members of the same line 
with each other, divided in the manner to be seen in the in- 
stances before mentioned ; because the beauty of proportion in 
the members, according to each of these divisions, is founded in 
nature ; being as one to two — two to three — or three to two. 

The next degree arises from comparing the members of a cou- 
plet, or two contiguous lines : as, 

See the bold youth" strain up the threat'ning steep, 
Rush through the thickets" down the valleys sweep. 
Here we find the caesura of the first line, at the end of the 
second foot ; and in the middle of the third foot, in the last line. 
Hang o'er their coursers' heads" with eager speed, 
And earth rolls back" beneath the flying steed. 
In this couplet, the Caesura is at the end of the third foot, in 
the first line ; and of the second, in the latter line. 

The next perception of harmony arises from comparing a 
greater number of lines, and observing the relative proportion of 
the couplets to each other, in point of similarity and divers'* ty, as : 
Thy forests Windsor" and thy green retreats, 
At once the monarch's" and the muse's seats, 
Invite my lays." Be present Sylvan maids, 
Unlock your springs" and open all your shades. 
Not half so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 
When the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky ; 
Not half so swiftly" the fierce eagle moves, 
When through the clouds" he drives the trembling doves. 
In this way, the comparison of lines variously apportioned by 
the different seats of the three caesuras, may be the source of a 
gredt variety of harmony, consistent with the finest melody. 
This is still increased by the introduction of two caesuras, and 
much more by that of semi-pauses. The semi-pauses double 
every where the terms of comparison ; give a more distinct view 
of the whole and the parts ; afford new proportions of measure- 



-Versification.] PROSODY. 175 

ment, and an ampler scope for diversity and equality, those 
sources of beauty in harmony. 

Warms' in the sun" refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars" and blossoms' in the trees ; 
Lives' through all life" extends' through all extent, 
Spreads' undivided" operates' unspent. 
3d, The last object in versification regards expression. 
When men express their sentiments by words, they naturally 
fall into that sort of movement of the voice, which is consonant to 
that produced by the emotion in the mind ; and the Dactylic or 
Anapaestic, the Trochaic, Iambic, or Spondaic, prevails even in 
common discourse, according to the different nature of the sen- 
timents expressed. To imitate nature, therefore, the poet, in 
arranging his words in the artificial composition of verse, must 
take care to make the movement correspond to the sentiment, 
by the proper use of the several kinds of feet: and this is the 
first and most general source of expression in numbers. 

That a judicious management of the feet and pauses, may be 
peculiarly expressive of particular operations and sentiments, 
will sufficiently appear to the learner, by a few select examples 
under each of those heads. 

In the following instance, the vast dimensions of Satan are 
shown by an uncommon succession of long syllables, which de- 
tain us to survey the huge arch fiend, in his fixed posture. 
So stretch'd out huge in length the arch fiend lay. 
The next example affords instances of the power of a Trochee 
beginning a line, when succeeded by an Iambus. 

■. and sheer within 

Lights on his feet : as when a prowling wol 
Leaps o'er the fence with ease into the foM 
The Trochee which bpgJne the line ohows Satan in the act o 
lighting : the Iambus that follows, fixes him—" Lights on his feet." 
The same artifice, in the beginning of the next line, makes us 
see the wolf—" leap o'er the fence."— But as the mere act ot 
leaping over the fence, is not the only circumstance to be 
attended to, but also the facility with which it is done, this is 
strongly marked, not only by the smooth foot which follows— 
* with ease "—itself very expressive, but likewise by a Pyrrhic 
preceding the last foot—" into the fold "—which indeed carries 
the wolf—" with ease into the fold." 

The following instances show the effects produced by caesuras, 
so placed as to divide the line into very unequal portions: such 
as that after the first, and before the last semipede. 

thus with the year 

Seasons return, but not to me returns 
Day" or the sweet approach of even or morn. 4f9& 
Here the caesura after the first semipede Day, stops us <^gfe- 
pectedly, and forcibly impresses the imagination with the great* 
ness of the author's loss, the loss of sight. 






176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

No sooner had th' Almighty ceas'd, but all 

The multitude of angels, with a shout 

Loud" as from numbers without number" sweet 

As from blest voices uttering joy. 

There is something very striking in this uncommon caesura, 
which suddenly stops the reader, to reflect on the importance of 
a particular word. 

We shall close the subject, with an example containing the united 
powers of many of the principles which have been explained. 
Dire was the tossing" deep the groans" Despair" 
Tended the sick" busiest from couch to couch" 
And over them triumphant death" his dart" 
Shook" but delay'd to strike. 
Many of the rules and observations respecting Prosody, are 
taken from "Sheridan's Art of Reading ;" to which book the 
Compiler refers the ingenious student, for more extensive infor- 
mation on the subject. 



PUNCTUATION* 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition 
into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, for 
the purpose of marking the different pauses which the 
sense, and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semico- 
Ion, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, double 
that of the semicolon and the Period, double that of the 
colon. 

The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot be 
defined ; for it varies with the time of the whole. The same 
composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower time ; but 
the proportion between the pauses should be ever invariable. 

In order more clearly to determine the proper application of 
the points, we must distinguish between an imperfect phrase, a 
simple sentence, and a compound sentence. 

An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount 
to a proposition or sentence : as, " Therefore ; in haste ; studi- 
ous of praise." 

A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb, 
expressed or implied : as, " Temperance preserves health." 

A compound senftnce has more than oife subject, or one finite 

^^punctuation is intended to aid both the sense, and the pronunciation of 
a J^KSce, it could not have been exclusively discussed under the part of Syn- 
tax^^A of Prosody. The nature of the subject, its extent and importance, and 
the grammatical knowledge which it presupposes, have induced lis to make it a 
distinct arid subsequent article 



Comma.] PUNCTUATION. 177 

verb, either expressed or understood ; or it consists of two or 
more simple sentences connected together : as, "Goodnature 
mends and beautifies all objects;" *' Virtue refines the affections, 
but vice debases them." 

In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of them, 
may be accompanied with severaladjunets : as, the object, the 
end, the circumstance of time, place, manner, and the like: and 
the subject or verb may be either immediately connected with 
them, or mediately ; that is, by being connected with something 
which is connected with some other, and so on : as, " The mind, 
unoccupied with useful knowledge, becomes a magazine of tri- 
fles and follies." 

Members of sentences may be divided into simple and com- 
pound members. See page 96. 

CHAPTER I. Of the Comma. 
The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence, 
which, though very closely connected in sense and con- 
struction, require a pause between them. 

Rule I. With respect to a simple sentence, the several words 
of which it consists have so near a relation to each other, that, in 
general, no points are requisite, except a full stop at the end 
of it: as, "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
44 Every part of matter swarms with living creatures." 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the 
nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may 
admit of a pause immediately before the verb : as, " The good 
taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the culti- 
vation of the English language:" "To be totally indifferent to 
praise or censure, eis a real defect in character." 

Rule II. When the connexion of the different parts of a sim- 
ple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is 
usually introduced before the beginning, and at the end of this 
phrase : as, " T remember, with gratitude, his goodness to me :" 
" His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. Tt is, therefore, 
not much approved." But when those interruptions are slight and 
unimportant, the comma is better omitted: as, "Flattery is cer- 
tainly pernicious ;" "There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." 

In the generality of compound sentences, there is frequent oc- 
casion for commas. This will appear from the following rules; 
some of which apply to simple, as well as to compound sentences. 

Rule III. When two or more nouns occur in the same con 
struction, they are parted by a comma : as, " Reason, virtue, an- 
swer one great aim :" " The husband, wife, and children, smTer- 
ed extremely :"* " They took away their furniture, clotheljpjfcd 

* As a considerable pause in pronunciation, js necessary oetween the last 
noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it. But as no pause 
is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, under Rule IV. the com- 
ma is there properly omitted See WALKER' s Elements of Elocution. 
ft* 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Cow ma 

stock in trade i" 9 u He is alternately supported by his father, his 
uncle, and his elder brother." 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to 
two nouns closely connected by a conjunction : as, " Virtue and 
vice form a strong contrast to each other:" " Libertines call re- 
.^gion bigotry or superstition ;" " There is a natural difference 
between merit and demerit, virtue arid vice, wisdom and folly. " 
But if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be in- 
serted, though the conjunction is expressed: as, "Romances 
may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives 
to evil ;" " Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and 
the vigour of our minds." 

Rule IV. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same sub- 
stantive are likewise separated by commas: as, " Plain, honest 
truth, wants no artificial covering;" "David was a brave, wise, 
and pious man;" " A woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, 
and religious ;" " The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest, 
the most rational the most affecting, and the most lasting." 

But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, 
are not separated by a comma : as, " True worth is modest and 
retired ;" " Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform 
and consistent." " We must be wise or foolish ; there is no 
medium." 

Rule V. Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, 
and immediately following one another, are also separated by 
commas : as, " Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in pros- 
perity:" "In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, 
and discuss." 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an 
exception to the above rule : as, " The study of natural history 
expands and elevates the mind ;" " Whether we eat or drink, la- 
bour or sleep, we should be moderate." 

Two or more participles, are subject to a similar rule, and excep- 
tion : as, " A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator ;" 
" He was happy in being loved, esteemed, and respected ;" M By 
being admired and flattered, we are often corrupted." 

Rule VI. Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding one 
another, must be separated by commas : as, " We are fearfully, 
wonderfully framed ;" " Success generally depends on acting pru 
4ently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we undertake." 

But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are 
not parted by the comma : as, " Some men sin deliberately and 
presumptuously ;" " There is no middle state ; we must live virtu- 
ously or vitiously." 

Rule VII. When participles are followed by something that 
degfrnds on them, they are generally separated from the rest of 
the sentence by a comma: as, "The kmg, approving of the plan, 
put it in execution ;" "His talents, formed for great enterprises, 
could not fail of rendering him conspicuous ;" " All mankind com- 
pose one family, assembled under the eye of one common Father.' 



Comma.] PUNCTUATION. 179 

Rule VIII. When a conjunction is divided by a phrase or sen- 
tence from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase 
has usually a comma at each extremity : as, " They set out early. 
and, before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place.'* 

Rule IX. Expressions in a direct address, are separated from 
the rest of the sentence by commas : as, " My son, give me thy 
heart ;" " I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favours." 

Rule X. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, 
are separated by commas from the body of the sentence : as, 
" His father dying, he succeeded to the estate ;" " At length, their 
ministry performed, and race well run, they left the world in 
peace ;" " To confess the truth, I was much in fault." 

Rule XL Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other 
nouns in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, 
when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas: as. 
" Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and 
knowledge ;" " The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in 
the sun." 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they 
are not divided : as, u Paul the apostle ;" " The emperor Anto- 
ninus wrote an excellent book." 

Rule XII. Simple members of sentences connected by compa- 
ratives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma: as, "As 
the hart panteth after the water^rooks^ so doth my soul pant af- 
ter thee ;" "Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled 
ox and hatred with it." 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma 
is, in general, better omitted: as, u How much better is it to get 
wisdom than gold !" " Mankind act oftener from caprice than rea- 
son." 

Rule XIIL When words are placed in opposition to each 
other, or with some marked variety, they require to be distin- 
guished by a comma : as, 

" Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage; without overflowing, full." 
* Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not 
only in union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct 
of one another." 

Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, 
is single, it is better to omit the comma before it: as, "Many 
states were in alliance with, and under the protection q/'Rome." 

The same rule and restrictions must be applied when two or 
more nouns refer to the same preposition : as, u He was com- 
posed both under the threatening, and at the approach ©/"a cruel 
and lingering death ;" " He was not only the king, but the fa- 
ther of his people." 

Rule XIV. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, 
somewhat in the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked 
with a comma : as, " It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not 
tnow ;" " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves " 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Comma 

Rule XV. Relative pronouns are connective words, and gene- 
rally admit a comma before them : as, " He preaches sublimely 
who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life ;" " There is no charm 
\n 1 he female sex, which can supply the place of virtue." 

But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected by 
a relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a 
particular sense, the comma should be omitted : as, " Self-denial 
is the sacrifice which virtue must make ;" " A man who is of a 
detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that 
can be put together." In the latter example, the assertion is not 
of" a man in general," but of " a man who is of a detracting 
spirit ;" and therefore they should not be separated. 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative 
is not expressed, but understood : as, " It was from piety, warm 
and unaffected, that his morals derived strength." "This senti- 
ment, habitual and strong, influenced his whole conduct." In both 
of these examples, the relative and verb which ivas, are understood. 

Rule XVI. A simple member of a sentence, contained with- 
in another, or following another, must be distinguished by the 
comma : as, " To improve time whilst we are blessed with health, 
will smooth the bed of sickness." " Very often, while we are 
complaining of the vanity, and the evils of human life, we make 
that vanity, and we increase those evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very 
closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, "Revelation 
tells us how we may attain happiness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its governing 
verb, with several words between them, those words should 
generally have a comma at the end of them ; as, " It ill becomes 
good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one another." 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common depen- 
dence, and succeeding one another, are also divided by commas: 
as, " To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect 
the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble 
employments." 

Rule XVII. When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the 
infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the nomi- 
native case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter 
verb, by a comma : as, " The most obvious remedy is, to with- 
draw from all associations with bad men." " The first and most 
obvious remedy against the infection is, to withdraw from all 
associations with bad men." 

Rule XVIII. When adjuncts or circumstances are of impor- 
tance, and often when the natural order of them is inverted, 
they may be set off by commas: as, " Virtue must be formed 
and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated 
exertions." " Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of life, 
grow great and monstrous." " Our interests are interwoven by 
threads innumerable ;" " By threads innumerable, our interests 
are interwoven/ 7 



I A. 

ne- 



Semicolon.] PUNCTUATION. 181 

Rule XIX. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often 
be properly introduced. This is a general rule which, besides 
comprising some of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases 
not determined by any of them : as, u From law arises security; 
from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge.' 5 In this 
example, the verb "arises" is understood before "curiosity'* 
and "knowledge;" at which words a considerable pause is 
necessary. 

Rule XX. The words, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, for- 
merly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next 
place, in short, and all other w r ords and phrases of the same kind, 
must generally be separated from the context by a comma : as, 
" remember thy best and first friend; formerly, the supporter of 
thy infancy, and the guide of thy childhood ; now, the guardian 
of thy youth, and the hope of thy coming years." " He feared 
want, hence, he overvalued riches." "This conduct may heal 
the difference, nay, it may constantly prevent any in future." 
"Finally, I shall only repeat what has been often justly said.'' 
" If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there will be no 
beauty, and in autumn, no fruit ; so, if youth be trifled away 
without improvement, riper years may be contemptible, and old 
age miserable. 

In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great regard 
must be paid to the length of the clauses, and the proportion 
which they bear to one another. An attention to the sense of 
any passage, and to the clear, easy communication of it, Avill, 
it is presumed, with the aid of the preceding rules, enable the 
student to adjust the proper pauses, and the places for inserting 
the commas. 

CHAPTER II. Of the Semicolon. 
The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sen- 
tence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as 
those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little 
dependent on each other, as those which are distinguished 
by a colon. 

The Semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding member 
of the sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but de- 
pends on the following clause : and sometimes when the sense 
of that member would be complete without the concluding one* 
as in the following instances: "As the desire of approbation, 
when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part 
of our species in every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more 
destructive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly." 

'Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from worldly 
affairs, is not what religion requires ; nor does it even enjoin a 
long retreat from them." 

" Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom.' 

"Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her opera 

Q 



. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Colon 

tions , that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that know- 
ledge will always be progressive ; and that all future generations 
wilJ continue to make discoveries, of which we have not the 
least idea." 

CHAPTER III. Of the Colon. 
The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
parts, less connected than those which are separated by a 
semicolon ; but not so independent as separate distinct 
sentences. 

The Colon may be properly applied in the three following cases. 

1 When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but fol- 
lowed by some supplemental remark, or further illustration of 
the subject : as, "Nature felt her inability to extricate herself 
from the consequences of guilt : the gospel reveals the plan of 
Divine interposition and aid." " Nature confessed some atone- 
ment to be necessary : the gospel discovers that the necessary 
atonement is made." 

2 When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater 
pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding 
sentiment : as, " A divine legislator, uttering his voice from 
heaven ; an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm to punish 
or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter 

*for the righteous; and of indignation and wrath awaiting the 
wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the world, 
which support integrity, and check guilt." 

3 The Colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, 
or a speech is introduced : as, " The Scriptures give us an amia- 
ble representation of the Deity, in these words : ; God is loveY " 
" He was often heard to say : ' I have done with the world, and I 
am willing to leave it.' " 

The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is sometimes 
determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or not expressed : 
as, "Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happi- 
ness: there is no such thing in the world." "Do not flatter 
yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness ; for there is no 
such thing in the world." 

CHAPTER IV. Of the Period. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not 
connected in construction with the following sentence, it 
is marked with a Period. 

Some sentences are independent of each other, both in their 
sense and construction: as, " Fear God. Honour the king. Have 
charity towards all men." Others are independent only in their 
grammatical construction : as, " The Supreme Being changes not, 
either in his desire to promote our happiness, or in the plan of 
his administration. One light always shines upon us from above. 
One clear and direct path is always pointed out to man." 



PUNCTUATION. 183 

A period may sometimes be admitted between two sentences, 
though they are joined by a disjunctive or copulative conjunction. 
For the quality of the point does not always depend on the con- 
nective particle, but on the sense and structure of sentences : as, 
'Recreations, though they may be of an innocent kind, require 
steady government, to keep them within a due and limited pro- 
vince. But such as are of an irregular and vitious nature, are 
not to be governed, but to be banished from every well-regulated 
mind. , ' 

" He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice of the 
world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he 
draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect 
him in every part." 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word: as, 
" M. S. P. S. N. B. A. D. O. S. N. S." &c. 

CHAPTER V. Of the Dash, Notes of Interrogation and 
Exclamation, fyc. 

The Dash. 
The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and inco- 
herent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the 
sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is re- 
quired ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment ■ 
as, " If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how falJen ! 
how degraded !" "If acting conformably to the will of our Cre- 
ator ; — if promoting the welfare of mankind around us ; — if se- 
curing our own happiness ; — are objects of the highest moment : 
— then we are loudly called upon, to cultivate and extend the 
great interests of religion and virtue." 

" Here lies the great False marble, where ? 

Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 
Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, there 
are others, which denote a different modulation of voice, in 
correspondence to the sense. These are, 

The Interrogation point, ? 
The Exclamation point, ! 
The Parenthesis. ( ) 

Interrogation. 

A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative 
sentence ; that is, when a question is asked : as, "Who will ac- 
company me ?" " Shall we always be friends ?" 

Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, 
ought to be terminated by points of interrogation : as, " Who 
adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?" "At whose 
command do the planets perform their constant revolutions ?" 

A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are 
not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of some 
other emotion. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Exclamation 

"How many instances have we of chastity and excellence in 
the fair sex !" 

" With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us in the 
choice of our companions !" 

A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases where 
it is only said a question has been asked, and where the words 
are not used as a question. " The Cyprians asked me, why I 
wept." To give this sentence the interrogative form, it should 
be expressed thus: "The Cyprians said to me, 'Why dost 
thou weep?' " 

Exclamation. 
The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 
emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. and also to invocations or 
addresses: as, " My friend ! this conduct amazes me !" " Bless 
the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not all his benefits !" 
" Oh ! had we both our humble state maintain'd, 
And safe in peace and poverty remain'd !" 
Hear me O Lord ! for thy lovingkindness is great !" 
It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an interro- 
gative and exclamatory sentence; but a sentence, in which any 
wonder or admiration is expressed, and no answer either ex 
pected or implied, may be always properly terminated by a note 
of exclamation : as, " How much vanity in the pursuits of men !" 
" Who can sufficiently express the goodness of our Creator!" 
"What is more amiable than virtue !" 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate 
as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in chat re- 
spect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may re- 
quire. They mark an elevation of the voice. 

The utility of the points of Interrogation and Exclamation ap- 
pears from the following examples, in w 7 hich the meaning is 
signified and discriminated solely by the points. 
" What condescension !" 
" What condescension ?" 
" How great was the sacrifice !" 
" How great was the sacrifice ?" 

Parenthesis. 
A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary informa- 
tion, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence 
obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the gram 
matical construction : as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 

Virtue alone is happiness below." 
" And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
(What can exalt his bounty more?) for thee." 
"To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five 
letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." " Know ye 
»;ot, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the law,) how that 
the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth ?" 



Parenthesis, &c] PUNCTUATION. 185 

If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with the 
rest of the sentence, it is not proper to use the parenthetical cha- 
racters. The following instances are therefore improper uses 
of the parenthesis. "Speak you (who saw) his wonders in the 
deep." " Every planet (as the Creator has made nothing in 
vain) is most probably inhabited." "He found them asleep 
again ; (for their eyes were heavy ;) neither knew they what to 
answer him." 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, 
and may be accompanied with every point which the sense 
would require, if the parenthetical characters were omitted. It 
ought to terminate with the same kind of stop which the member 
has, that precedes it ; and to contain that stop within the paren- 
thetical marks. We must, however, except cases of interroga- 
tion and exclamation : as, " While they wish to please, (and 
why should they not wish it ?) they disdain dishonourable means." 
" It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate !) which 
was borrowed from paganism." See the Octavo Grammar, on 
this subject. 



There are other characters, which are frequently made use of 
in composition, and which may be explained in this place, viz. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten 
a word : as, His for it is ; tho' for though ; e'en for even ; judged 
forjudged. Its chief use is to show the genitive case of nouns: 
as, " A man's property ; a woman's ornament." 

A Caret, marked thus a is placed where some word happens 
to be left out in writing, and which is inserted over the line. 
This mark is also called a circumflex, when placed" over a parti- 
cular vowel, to denote a long syllable : as, " Euphrates." 

A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting com- 
pounded words ; as, " Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, 
to-morrow, mother-in-law." 

It is also used when a word is divided, and the former part is 
written or printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the 
beginning of another. In this case, it is placed at the end of the 
first line, not at the beginning of the second. 

The Acute Accent, marked thus ' : as, "Fancy" The Grave 
thus N : as, " Favour" 

In English the Accentual marks are chiefly used in spelling- 
books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables which require a 
particular stress of the voice in pronunciation. 

The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately. 
In order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of 
dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, and the acute 
on the latter, in this manner : " Minor, mineral, lively, livid, 
rival, river." 

The proper mark to distinguish a long sellable, is this"" 
as, " Rosy :" and a short one this w : as, " Folly." This last 
mark is called a breve. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A Diaeresis, thus marked " , consists of two points placed over 
one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and 
parts them into two syllables: as, "Creator, coadjutor, aerial." 

A Section, marked thus § 5 is the division of a discourse, 01 
chapter, into less parts or portions. 

A Paragraph IF denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a 
sentence not connected with the foregoing. This character is 
chiefly used in the Old, and in the New Testaments. 

A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed 
at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or 
transcribed from the speaker or author in his own words ; and 
two apostrophes in their direct position, are placed at the conclu- 
sion : as, 

" The proper study of mankind is man." 

Crotchets or Brackets [ ] serve to enclose a sentence, which is 
to be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or a word or 
a sentence which is intended to supply some deficiency, or to 
rectify some mistake. 

An Index or hand QJ 3 points out a remarkable passage, or 
something that requires particular attention. 

A Brace > is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three 

fines, which have the same rhyme. 

Braces are also used to connect a number of words with one 
common term, and are introduced to prevent a repetition in 
writing or printing. 

An Asterisk, or little star *, directs the reader to some note in 
the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two or three aste- 
risks generally denote the omission of some letters in a word, or of 
some bold or indelicate expression, or some defect in the manu- 
script. 

An Ellipsis — is also used, when some letters in a word, or some 
words in a verse, are omitted : as, " The k — g," for " the king." 

An Obelisk, which is marked thus f, and Parallels thus ||, toge- 
ther with the letters of the Alphabet, and figures, are used as 
references to the margin, or bottom of the page. 
Paragraphs. 

it may not be improper to insert, in this place, a few general di- 
rections respecting the division of a composition into paragraphs. 

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very nume- 
rous in small compass, should be separated into paragraphs. 

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the 
larger divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. And it will have 
a good effect to form the breaks, when it can properly be done, 
at sentiments of the most weight, or that call for peculiar attention. 

The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, sometimes 
naturally point out the separations into paragraphs: and each 
of these, when of great length, will again require subdivisions at 
their most distinctive parts. 

In cases w'lich require a connected subject to be formed into 



PUNCTUATION. 187 

several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the 
connexion of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to tho 
division. See the Octavo Grammar. 

Directions respecting the use of Capital Lette?-s. 
It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a capi 
tal : but as this practice was troublesome, and gave the writing or 
printing a crowded and confused appearance, it has been discon 
tinued. It is however, very proper to begin with a capital, 

1 The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any 
other piece of writing. 

2 The first word after a period ; and* if the two sentences are 
totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences, are 
thrown into one general group ; or if the construction of the lat- 
ter sentences depends on the former, all of them, except the first, 
may begin with a small letter : as, " How long, ye simple ones, 
will ye love simplicity ? and the scorners delight in their scorn- 
ing ? and fools hate knowledge ?" "Alas! how different! yet 
how like the same !" 

3 The appellations of the Deity : as, " God, Jehovah, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, 
the Holy Spirit. 

4 Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, 
ships : as, " George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the 
Seahorse. " 

5 Adjectives derived from the proper names of places : as, 
Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian." 

6 The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or 
when it is in a direct form : as, " Always remember this ancient 
maxim : * Know thyself.' " " Our great Lawgiver says, 'Take 
up thy cross daily, and follow me.' " But when a quotation is 
brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary : as 

' Solomon observes, ' that pride goes before destruction.' " 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin 
with a capital : as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 

7 Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books ' 
as, "Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language;" "Thorn 
son's Seasons ;" " Rollin's Ancient History." 

8 The first word of every line in poetry. 

9 The pronoun J, and the interjection O, are written in capi 
tals : as, " I write :" " Hear, O earth !" 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capital* 
when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject 
of the composition 



t 188 ] 

APPENDIX. 



CONTAINING RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR ASSISTING YOUNG 
PERSONS TO WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY, TO BE 
STUDIED AFTER THEY HAVE ACQUIRED A COMPETENT KNOW- 
LEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PERSPICUITY 

Is the fundamental quality of style : a quality so essential in 
every kind of writing, that for the want of it nothing can atone. 
It is not to be considered as merely a sort of negative virtue, or 
freedom from defect. It has higher merit : it is a degree of posi- 
tive beauty. We are pleased with an author, and consider him 
as deserving praise, who frees us from all fatigue of searching 
for his meaning ; who carries us through his subject without any 
embarrassment or confusion; whose style flows always like a 
limpid stream, through which we see to the very bottom. 

The study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression consists 
of two parts : and requires attention, first, to Single Words and 
Phrases; and then, to the Construction of Sentences. 

PART I. 

Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, with respect to single 
Words and Phrases. 

These qualities of style, considered with regard to words and 
phrases, require the following properties : purity, propriety, 
and precision. 

CHAPTER I. Of Purity. 

Purity of style consists in the use of such words, and such 
constructions, as belong to the idiom of the language which we 
speak ; in opposition to words and phrases that are taken from 
other languages, or that are ungrammatical, obsolete, new-coin- 
ed, or used without proper authority. All such words and 
phrases as the following, should be avoided : Quoth he; I wist 
not ; erewhile ; behest ; selfsame ; delicatesse, for delicacy ; politesse, 
for politeness ; hauteur, for haughtiness ; incumberment, connexity, 
martyrised^ for encumberance, connexion, martyred. 

Foreign and learned words, unless where necessity requires 
them, should never be admitted into our composition. Barren 
. anguages may need such assistance, but ours is not one of these. 
A multitude of Latin words, in particular, have, of late, been 
poured in upon our language. On -some occasions, they give an 
appearance of elevation and dignity to style ; but they often 
render it stiff and apparently forced. In general, a plain, native 
style, i-s more intelligible to all readers ; and, by a proper manage 
ment of words, it can be made as strong and expressive as this 
Latinised English, or any foreign idioms. 



Propriety.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 189 

CHAPTER II. Of Propriety. 

Propriety of language is the selection of such words as the 
best usage has appropriated to those ideas, which we intend to 
express by them ; in opposition to low expressions, and to words 
«^ii phrases which would be less significant of the ideas that we 
mean to convey. Style may be pure, that is, it may be strictly 
English, without Scotticisms or Gallicisms, or ungrammatical, 
irregular expressions of any kind, and may, nevertheless, be defi- 
cient irc propriety : for the words may be ill chosen, not adapted 
to the subject, nor fully expressive of the author's sense. 

To preserve propriety, therefore, in our words and phrases, 
we must avoid low expressions; supply words that are ivanting ; 
be careful not to use the same word in different senses ; avoid the 
injudicious use of technical phrases, equivocal or ambiguous words, 
unintelligible expressions, and all sruch tvords and phrases as are 
not adapted to our meaning. 

1 Avoid low expressions : such as, " Topsy turvy, hurly burly, 
pellmell : having a month's mind for a thing ; currying favour 
with a person ; dancing attendance on the great," &c. 

" Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves, were 
forced to call in the Saxons for their defence." The phrase 
u left to shift for themselves" is rather a low phrase, and too much 
in the familiar style to be proper in a grave treatise. 

2 Supply words that are wanting. " Arbitrary power I look 
upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as much as a savage 
is a happier state of life than a slave at the oar :" it should have 
been, " as much as the state of a savage is happier than that of a 
slave at the oar." "He has not treated this subject liberally, by 
the views of others as well as his own ;" " By adverting to the 
views of others," would have been better. " This generous 
action greatly increased his former services ;" it should have 
been, " greatly increased the merit of his former services." " By 
the pleasures of the imagination or fancy (which I shall use 
promiscuously) I here mean," &c. This passage ought to have 
had the word "terms" supplied, which would have made it 
correct : " terms which I shall use promiscuously." 

It may be proper in this place to observe, that articles and 
prepositions are sometimes improperly omitted ; as in the follow- 
ing instances : "How immense the difference between the pious 
and profane !" "Death is the common lot of all ; of good men and 
bad." They should have had the article and preposition repeated: 
M How immense the difference between the pious and the profane!" 
" Death is the common lot of all ; of good men and o/bad." 

The repetition of articles and prepositions is proper, when we 
intend to point out the objects of which we speak, as distinguished 
from each other, or in contrast ; and when we wish that the read- 
er's attention should rest on that distinction : as, " Our sight is 
at once the most delightful, and the most useful of all our senses." 

3 hi the same sentence, be careful not to use the same word too 
frequently, nor in different senses. " One may have an air which 






190 APPENDIX. [Propriety 

proceeds from a just sufficiency and knowledge of the matter 
before him, which may naturally produce some motions of his 
head and body, which might become the bench better than the bar." 

The pronoun which is here thrice used, in such a manner as to 
throw obscurity over the sentence. 

" Gregory favoured the undertaking, for no other reason than 
this, that the manager, in countenance, favoured his friend." It 
should have been, " resembled his friend.' 

" Charity expands our hearts in love to God and man : it is by 
the virtue of charity that the rich are blessed, and the poor suppli- 
ed. " In this sentence, the word "charity" is improperly used in two 
different senses; for the highest benevolence, and for almsgiving. 

4 Avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. To inform those 
who do not understand sea-phrases, that " We tacked to the 
larboard, and stood off to sea," would be expressing ourselves 
very obscurely. Technical phrases not being in current use, 
but only the peculiar dialect of a particular class, we should never 
use them but when we know they will be understood. 

5 Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. The following sentences 
are exceptionable in this respect. "As for such animals as are 
mortal or noxious, we have a right to destroy them." " I Jong 
since learned to like nothing but what you do. 19 " He aimed at 
nothing less than the crown," may denote either, " Nothing was 
less aimed at by him than the crown," or " Nothing inferior to 
the crown could satisfy his ambition." U I will have mercy, and 
not sacrifice." The first part of this sentence denotes, " I will 
exercise mercy ;" whereas it is in this place employed to signify, 
" I require others to exercise it." The translation should there- 
fore have been accommodated to these different meanings. 
u They were both much more ancient among the Persians, than 
Zoroaster or Zerdusht." The or in this sentence is equivocal. 
It serves either as a copulative to synonymous words, or as a 
disjunctive of different things. If, therefore, the student should 
not know that Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same person, 
he will mistake the sense. " The rising tomb a lofty column 
bore:" "And thus the son the fervent sire addrest." Did the 
tomb bear the column, or the column the tomb? Did the son 
address the sire, or the sire the son ? 

6 Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases. " I 
have observed," says Steele, " that the superiority among these 
coffeehouse politicians, proceeds from an opinion of gai/antry 
and fashion." This sentence, considered in itself, evidently con- 
veys no meaning. First, it is not said whose opinion, their own, 
or that of others: Secondly, it is not said what opinion, or of 
what sort, favourable or unfavourable, true or false, but in gene- 
ral, " an opinion of gallantry and fashion," which contains no 
definite expression of any meaning. With the joint assistance 
of the context, reflection, and conjecture, we shall perhaps con- 
clude that the author intended to say ; "That the rank among 
these politicians was determined by the opinion generally enter- 



Propriety.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 191 

tained of the rank, in point of gallantry and fashion, that each of 
them had attained." 

" This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of humility, 
" keeps our understanding tight about us." Whether the authoi 
had any meaning in this expression, or what it was, is not easy 
to determine. 

Sometimes a writer runs on in a specious verbosity, amusing 
his reader with synonymous terms and identical propositions, 
well-turned periods, and high-sounding words ; but at the same 
time, using those words so indefinitely, that the reader can 
either affix no meaning at all to them, or may affix to them almost 
any meaning he pleases. 

" If it is asked," says a late writer, "whence arises the har- 
mony, or beauty of language ? what are the rules for obtaining 
it ? the answer is obvious. Whatever renders a period sweet 
and pleasant, makes it also graceful. A good ear is the gift of 
nature; it may be much improved, but not acquired by art. 
Whoever is possessed of it, will scarcely need dry critical pre- 
cepts to enable him to judge of a true rhythmus, and melody of 
composition. Just numbers, accurate proportions, a musical 
symphony, magnificent figures, and that decorum which is the 
result of all these, are unison to the human mind." 

The following is a poetical example of the same nature, in 
which there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, though it was com- 
posed by an eminent poet, 

From harmony, from heavenly harmony, 
This universal frame began : 
From harmony to harmony 
Thro' all the compass of the notes it ran, 
The diapason closing full in man. 

In general, it may be said, that in writings of this stamp, we 
must accept of sound instead of sense ; being assured, that if we 
meet with little that can inform the judgment, we shall at least 
find nothing that will offend the ear. And perhaps this is one 
reason that we pass over such smooth language, without sus- 
pecting that it contains little or no meaning. In order to write 
or speak clearly and intelligibly, two things are especially re- 
quisite : one, that we have clear and distinct ideas of our subject ; 
and the other, that our words be approved signs of those ideas. 
That persons who think confusedly, should express themselves 
obscurely, is not to be wondered at ; for embarrassed, obscure, and 
feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the result of embar- 
rassed, obscure, and feeble thought ; but that persons of judgment, 
who are accustomed to scrutinize their ideas, and the signification 
of their words, should sometimes write without any meaning, is, at 
first sight, matter of admiration. This, however, when further con- 
sidered, appears to be an effect derived from the same cause, in- 
distinctness of conception, and inattention to the exact import of 
words. The occasions on which we are most apt to speak and 
write in this unintelligible manner, are the three following. 



192 APPENDIX. [Propriety 

The first is, where there is an exuberance of metaphor. 
Writers who are fond of the metaphoric style, are generally dis- 
posed to continue it too long, and to pursue it too far. 

They are often misled by a desire of flourishing on the several 
properties of a metaphor which they have ushered into the dis- 
course, without taking the trouble to examine whether there are 
any qualities in the subject, to which these properties can, with 
justice and perspicuity, be applied. The following instance of this 
sort of writing is from an author of considerable eminence. 
u Men must acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning 
their view inward, in order to explore the interior regions and 
recesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep thought, the 
private seats of fancy, and the wastes and wildernesses, as 
well as the more fruitful and cultivated tracts of this obscure 
climate." A most wonderful way of telling us, that it is difficult 
to trace the operations of the mind. The author having dete* 
mined to represent the human mind under the metaphor of * 
country, revolved in his thoughts the various objects which 
might be found in a country, without considering whether them 
are any things in the mind properly analogous to these. Henca 
the strange parade he makes with regions and recesses, hollow ca> 
verns and private seats, wastes and ivildernesses, fruitful and culti- 
vated tracts ; words which, though they have a precise meaning, as 
applied to country, have no definite signification,as applied to mind 

The second occasion of our being apt to write unintelligibly, is 
that wherein the terms most frequently occurring, denote things 
which are of a complicated nature, and to which the mind is no' 
sufficiently familiarised. Of these the instances are numberless 
in every tongue ; such as Government, church, state, constitution, 
power, legislature, jurisdiction, &c. 

The third and principal occasion of unintelligible writing, is, 
when the terms employed are very abstract, and consequently of 
•very extensive signification. Thus the word lion is more dis- 
tinctly apprehended by the mind than the word beast, beast than 
animal, animal than being. 

The 7th and last rule for preserving propriety in our words 
and phrases, is, to avoid all those which are not adapted to the ideas 
we mean to communicate ; or which are less significant than others, 
of those ideas. "He feels any sorrow that can arrive at man ;" 
better " happen to man." a The conscience of approving one's 
self a benefactor, is the best recompense for being so;" it should 
have been " consciousness" " He firmly believed the divine pre- 
cept, ' There is not a sparrow falls to the ground,' " &c. It 
should have been "doctrine" 

" It is but opening the eye, and the scene enters." A scene 
cannot be said to enter : an actor enters ; but a scene appears or 
presents itself 

" We immediately assent to the beauty of an object, without 
inquiring into the causes of it:" it is proper to say, that we as- 
sent to the truth of a proposition ; but it cannot so well be said 



Precision.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 193 

that we assent to the beauty of an objcai. Acknowledge would have 
expressed the sense with propriety. 

"The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us a notion of exten- 
sion, shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except co- 
lours." Extension and shape can, with no propriety, be called 
ideas ; they are properties of matter. Neither is it accurate, to 
speak of any sense giving us a notion of ideas : our senses give 
us the ideas themselves. The meaning of the sentence would 
have been proper, and much clearer, if the author had expressed 
himself thus : " The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us the 
idea of extension, figure, and all the other properties of matter, 
which are perceived by the eye, except colours." 

" The covetous man never has a sufficiency ; although he has 
what is enough for nature," is much inferior to," The covetous man 
never has enough ; although he has what is sufficient for nature." 

" A traveller observes the most striking objects he sees ; a ge- 
neral remarks all the motions of his enemy ;" better thus; "A 
traveller remarks" &c. ; "A general observes" &c. " This mea- 
sure enlarged his school, and obliged him to increase the build- 
ings ;" it should be, "increased his school;" and " enlarge the 
buildings." 

" He applied a medicine before the poison had time to work ." 
better thus: " He applied an antidote," &c. 

" The poison of a suspicious temper frequently throws out its 
bad qualities, on all who are within its reach ;" better, " throws out 
its malignant qualities." 

44 1 will go except I snould be ill ;" " T saw them all unless two 
or three :" corrected thus : u unless I should be ill ;" " except two 
or tnree 

A selection of words and phrases, which are peculiarly ex- 
pressive of the ideas we design to communicate ; or which are as 
particular and determinate in their signification, as is consistent 
with the nature and the scope of the discourse ; possesses great 
beauty, and cannot fail to produce a good effect. 
CHAPTER III. Of Precision. 

Precision is the third requisite of perspicuity with respect to 
words and phrases. It signifies retrenching superfluities, and 
pruning the expression, so as to exhibit neither more nor less 
than an exact copy of the person's idea who uses it. 

The words used to express ideas may be faulty in three re- 
spects. 1st, They may not express the idea which the author in- 
tends, but some other which only resembles it : secondly, They 
may express that idea, but not fully and completely; thirdly, 
They may express it, together with something more than is in- 
tended. Precision stands opposed to these three faults, but chiefly 
to the last. Propriety implies a freedom from the two former 
faults. The words which are used may be proper ; that is, they 
may express the idea intended, and they may express it fully ; but 
to be precise, signifies fhat they express that idea and no more. 

The use and importance of precision may be deduced from the 
9 R 



194 APPENDIX. [Precision. 

nature of the human mind. It never can view, clearly and dis- 
tinctly, more than one object at a time. If it must look at two 
or three together, especially objects that have resemblance 
or connexion, it finds itself confused and embarrassed. It can- 
not clearly perceive in what they agree, and in what they differ. 
Thus, were any object, suppose some animal, to be presented to 
my view, of whose structure I wished to form a distinct notion, I 
should desire all hijs trappings to be taken off; I should require 
it to be brought before me by itself, and to stand alone, that there 
might be nothing to divide my attention. The same is the case 
with words. If, when any one would inform me of his meaning, 
he also tells me more than what conveys it ; if he joins foreign 
circumstances to the principal objects ; if, by unnecessarily va- 
rying the expression, he shifts the point of view, and makes me 
see sometimes the object itself, and sometimes another thing that 
is connected with it, he thereby obliges me to look on several 
objects at once, and I lose sight of the principal. He loads the ani- 
mal he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I 
cannot distinctly view it ; or he brings so many of the same spe- 
cies before me, somewhat resembling, and yet somewhat differ- 
ing, that I see none of them clearly. When an author tells me 
of his hero's courage in the day of battle, the expression is pre- 
cise, and I understand it fully : but if, from the desire of multiply- 
ing words, he should praise his courage and fortitude; at the 
moment he joins these words together, my idea begins to waver. 
He means to express one quality more strongly, but he is in truth 
expressing two : courage resists danger ; fortitude supports pain. 
The occasion of exerting each of these qualities is different; and 
being led to think of both together, when only one of them should 
be considered, my view is rendered unsteady, and my conception 
of the object indistinct. 

All subjects do not equally require precision. It is sufficient, 
on many occasions, that we have a general view of the meaning 
The subject, perhaps, is of the known and familiar kind, and we 
are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author, though 
every word which he uses is not precise and exact. 

Many authors offend against this rule of precision. A considera- 
ble one, in describing a bad action, expresses himself thus : " It is to 
remove a good and orderly affection, and to introduce an ill or dis- 
orderly one ; to commit an action that is ill, immoral, and unjust ; to 
do ill, or to act in prejudice of integrity, good nature, and worth." 

A crowd of unmeaning or useless words is brought together 
by some authors, who, afraid of expressing themselves in a 
common and ordinary manner, and allured by an appearance 
of splendour, surround every thing which they mean to say with 
a certain copious loquacity. 

The great source of a loose style in opposition to precision, is 
the injudicious use of the words termed synonymous. They are 
called synonymous, because they agree in expressing one prin 



Precis.on.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 195 

f.ipal idea; but, for the most part, if not always, they express it 
«vith some diversity in the circumstances. 

The following instances show a difference in the meaning of 
words reputed synonymous, and point out the use of attending, 
with care and strictness, to the exact import of words. 

Custom, habit. — Custom, respects the action ; habit, the actor. 
By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the same act . 
by habit, the effect which that repetition produces on the mini 
or body. By the custom of walking often in the streets, one 
acquires a habit of idleness. 

Pride, vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; vanity makes 
us desire the esteem of others. It is just to say, that a man is 
too proud to be vain. 

Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on the high 
opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on the low opinion 
we have of others. 

Only, alone. — Only, imports that there is no other of the same 
kind ; alone, imports being accompanied by no other. An only 
child, is one that has neither brother nor sister; a child alone, is 
one who is left by itself. There is a difference, therefore, in precise 
language, between these two phrases : " Virtue only makes us 
happy ;" and u Virtue alone makes us happy." 

Wisdom, prudence. — Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is 
most proper Prudence, prevents our speaking or acting im- 
properly. 

Entire, complete. — A thing is entire, by wanting none of its 
parts: complete, by wanting none of the appendages that belong 
to it. A man may have an entire house to himself, and yet not 
have one complete apartment. 

Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. — T am surprised 
with wnat is new or unexpected ; I am astonished at what is 
vast or great ; I am amazed at what is incomprehensible ; I am 
confounded by what is shocking or terrible. 

Tranquillity, peace, calm. — Tranquillity, respects a situation' free 
from trouble, considered in itself; peace, the same situation with 
respect to any causes that might interrupt it ; calm, with regard 
to a disturbed situation going before or following it. A good 
man enjoys tranquillity, in himself; peace, with others ; and 
calm, after the storm. 

These are some of the numerous instances of words, in our 
language, whose significations approach, but are not precisely 
the same. The more the distinction in the meaning of such 
words is attended to, the more clearly and forcibly shall we 
speak or write. It may not, on all occasions, be necessary to 
pay a great deal of attention to very nioe distinctions ; yet the 
foregoing instances show the utility of some general care to 
understand the distinc* import of our words. 

While we are attending to precision, we must be on our guard, 
lest* from the desire of pruning too closely, we retrench all 
copiousness. Scarcely in any language are there two words 



196 APPENDIX. [Clearness. 

that convey precisely the same idea ; a person thoroughly con- 
fersant in the propriety of the language, will always he able to 
observe something that distinguishes them. As they are like 
different shades of the same colour, an accurate writer can 
employ them to great advantage, by using them so as to heighten 
and complete the object which he presents to us. He supplies 
hy one what was wanting in the other, to the strength, or to the 
finishing, of the image which he means to exhibit. But, for this 
purpose, he must be attentive to the choice of his words, and 
not employ them carelessly, merely for the sake of filling up a 
period, or of rounding or diversifying his language, as if their 
signification were exactly the same, while in truth it is not. To 
unite copiousness and precision, to be full and easy, and at the 
same time correct and exact in the choice of every word, is no 
Joubt one of the highest and most difficult attainments in writing. 

PART II. 

Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, with respect to the 

Construction of Sentences. 

Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, nor very 
short : long ones require close attention to make us clearly per- 
ceive the connexion of the several parts ; and short ones are apt 
to break the sense, and weaken the connexion of thought. Yet 
occasionally they may both be used with force and propriety ; 
as may be seen in the following sentences. 

u If you look about you, and consider the lives of others as- 
well as your own , if you think how few are born with honour, 
and how many die without name or children ; how little beauty 
we see, and how few friends we hear of; how much poverty, and 
how many diseases there are in the world ; you will fall down 
upon your knees, and instead of repining at one affliction, will 
admire so many blessings which you have received from the 
Divine hand." This is a sentence composed of several members 
linked together, and hanging upon one another, so that the sense 
of the whole is not brought out till the close. The following is 
an example of one in which the sense is formed into short, inde- 
pendent propositions, each complete within itself. " I confess 
t was want of consideration that made me an author. I wrote, 
oecause it amused me. I corrected, because it was as pleasant 
to me to correct as to write. I published, because I was told I 
might please such as it was a credit to please." 

A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and 
with the same number of members, should never be allowed to 
succeed one another. A long succession of either long or short 
sentences should also be avoided ; for the ear tires of either ot 
*hem when too long continued. 

Whereas, by a proper mixture of long and short periods, and 
bf periods variously constructed, not only the ear is gratified ; but 
animation and force are given to our style. 

We now proceed to consider the things r^ost essentia to an 
accurate ar 1 a perfect sentence. They appear to be the four 



Clearness.J PERSPICUITY, &c. 197 

following: 1 clearness. 2. unity. 3. strength. 4. a judi 

CIOUS USE OF THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

CHAPTER I. Of the Clearness of a Sentence. 

Purity, propriety, and precision, in words and phrases sepa- 
rately considered, have already been explained, and shown to be 
necessary to perspicuous and accurate writing. The just rela- 
tion of sentences, and the parts of sentences, to one another, and 
the due arrangement of the whole, are the subjects which remain 
to be discussed. 

The first requisite of a perfect sentence is clearness. 

Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of suspense as to the 
meaning, ought to be avoided. Obscurity arises from two causes ; 
either from a wrong choice of words, or a wrong arrangement 
of them. The choice of words and phrases, as far as regards 
perspicuity, has been already considered. The disposition of 
them comes now under consideration. 

The first thing to be studied here, is grammatical propriety. 
But as the grammar of our language is comparatively not ex- 
tensive, there may be an obscure order of words, where there is 
no transgression of any grammatical rule. The relations of words, 
or members of a period, are, with us, ascertained only by the 
position in which they stand. 

Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences is, that 
the words or members, most clearly related, should be placed in 
the sentence as near to each other as possible, so as to make their 
mutual relation clearly appear. It will be proper to produce 
some instances, in order to show the importance of this rule. 

1 In the position of adverbs. 4t The Romans understood liberty 
at least, as well as we." These words are capable of two different 
senses, according as the emphasis, in reading them, is laid upon 
liberty, or upon at least. The words should have been thus ar- 
ranged : "The Romans understood liberty as well, at least, as we." 

"Theism can only be opposed to polytheism, or atheism." Is 
it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being 
opposed to polytheism, or atheism ? This is what the words 
literally import, through the wrong placing of the adverb only. 
It should have been, " Theism can be opposed only to polytheism 
or atheism." <j 

" By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only such plea- 
sures as arise originally from sight." When it is said, " I mean 
only such pleasures ," it maybe remarked, that the adverb only is 
not properly placed. It is not intended here to qualify the word 
mean, but such pleasures ; and therefore should have been placed 
in as close connexion as possible with the word which it limits 
or qualifies. The style becomes more clear and neat, when the 
words are arranged thus : " By the pleasures of the imagination, 
T mean such pleasures only as arise from sight." 

In the following sentence, the word more is not in its proper 
place. " There is not, perhaps, any real beauty or deformity 
more in one piece of matter than another." The phrase ought 

R2 



198 APPENDIX. [Clearness. 

to have stood thus : " Beauty or deformity in one piece of matter 
more than in another." 

2 In the position of circumstances, and of particular members. 

An author, in his dissertation on parties, thus expresses him- 
self: "Are these designs which any man, who is born a Briton, 
in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or 
afraid to avow ?" Here we are left at a loss,, whether these words, 
"in any circumstances, in any situation," are connected with "a 
man born in Britain, in any circumstances or situation," or with 
that man's " avowing his designs in any circumstances or situa- 
tion into which he maybe brought." " As it is probable that the 
latter was intended, the arrangement ought to have been con- 
ducted thus: " Are these designs which any man, who is born 
a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any situation, in any 
circumstances, to avow?" 

The following is another instance of a wrong arrangement of 
circumstances. "A great stone that I happened to find, after a 
long search, by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." One 
would think that the search was confined to the sea shore ; but 
as the meaning is, that the great stone was found by the sea 
shore, the period ought to have run thus : " A great stone, that 
after a long search, I happened to find by the sea shore, served 
me for an anchor." 

It is a rule, too, never to crowd many circumstances together 
but rather to intersperse them in different parts of the sentence, 
joined with the principal words on which they depend. For 
instance: "What I had the opportunity of mentioning to my 
friend, sometime ago, in conversation, was not a new thought." 
These two circumstances, " sometime ago" and u in conversation," 
which are here put together, would have had a better effect 
disjoined, thus : " What I had the opportunity, sometime ago, of 
mentioning to my friend in conversation, was not a new thought.' 

Here follows an example of the wrong arrangement of a mem- 
ber of a sentence. " The minister of state who grows less by 
his elevation, like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, will 
always have his jealousy strong about him." Here, so far as 
can be gathered from the arrangement, it is doubtful whether the 
object introduced, by way of simile, relates to what goes before, or 
to what follows. The ambiguity is removed by the following order. 
" The minister of state who, like a little statue placed on a mighty 
pedestal, grows less by his elevation, will always," &c. 

Words expressing things connected in the thought, ought to 
be placed as near together as possible, even when their separa- 
tion would convey no ambiguity. This will be seen in the fol- 
lowing passages from Addison. "For the English are naturally 
fanciful, and very often disposed by that gloominess and melan- 
choly of temper which are so frequent in our nation, to many 
wild notions and extravagancies, to which others are not so liable." 
Here the verb or assertion is, by a pretty long circumstance, 
separated from the subject to which it refers. This might have 



Clearness.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 199 

been easily prevented, by placing the circumstance before the 
verb, thus : " For the English are naturally fanciful, and by that 
gloominess and melancholy of temper which are so frequent in 
our nation, are often disposed to many wild notions," &c. 

" For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude 
of things, knows to what use his works may, some time or other, 
be applied," &c. Better thus : " For as, in the ordinary fate and 
vicissitude of things, no mortal author knows to what use, some 
time or other, his works may be applied," &c. 

From these examples, the following observations will occur: 
that a circumstance ought never to be placed between two capital 
members of a period ; but either between the parts of the mem- 
ber to which it belongs, or in such a manner as will confine it to 
its proper member. When the sense admits it, the sooner a cir- 
cumstance is introduced, generally speaking, the better, that the 
more important and significant words may possess the last place, 
quite disencumbered. The following sentence is, in this respect, 
faulty. " The emperor was so intent on the establishment of his 
absolute power in Hungary, that he exposed the empire doubly 
to desolation and ruin for the sake of it." Better thus: " That, 
for the sake of it, he exposed the empire doubly to desolation 
and ruin." 

This appears to be a proper place to observe, that when dif- 
ferent things have an obvious relation to each other, in respect 
to the order of nature or time, that order should be regarded, in 
assigning them their places in th6 sentence ; unless the scope of 
the passages require it to be varied. The conclusion of the 
following lines is inaccurate in this respect: "But still there 
will be such a mixture of delight, as is proportioned to the de- 
gree in which any one of these qualifications is most conspicu- 
ous and prevailing." The order in which the two last words 
are placed, should have been reversed, and made to stand, pre- 
vailing and conspicuous. — They, are conspicuous, because they 
prevail. 

The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict con- 
formity to this rule. " Our sight fills the mind with the largest 
variety of ideas, converses with its objects at the greatest dis- 
tance, and continues the longest in action, without being tired 
or satiated with its proper enjoyments " This passage follows the 
order of nature. First, we have the variety of objects mentioned, 
which sight furnishes to the mind ; next, we have the action of 
sight on those objects .; and lastly, we have the time and continu- 
ance of its action. No order could be more natural or exact. 

The order which we now recommend, is, in single words espe^ 
cially, frequently violated for the sake of better sound; but, 
perhaps m no instances, without a deviation from the line of strict 
propriety. 

3 In the disposition of the relative pronouns, who, which, what, 
whose, and of all those particles which express the connexion oj 
the paHs of speech ivith one another. 



200 APPENDIX. [Clearness 

A small error in the position of these words may cloud the 
meaning of the whole sentence ; and even where the meaning 
is intelligible, we always find something awkward and disjointed 
in the structure of the sentence, when these relatives are out of 
their proper place. u This kind of wit," says an author, " was 
very much in vogue among our countrymen, about an age or two 
ago; ivho did not practise it for any oblique reason, but purely 
for the sake of being witty." We are at no loss about the mean- 
ing here ; but the construction would evidently be mended by 
disposing the circumstance, " about an age or two ago," in such 
a manner as not to separate the relative who from its antecedent 
our countrymen; in this way : " About an age or two ago, this 
kind of wit was very much in vogue among our countrymen, 
who did not practise it," &c. 

The following passage is still more censurable. " It is folly 
to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heap- 
ing up treasures, which nothing can protect us against, but the 
good providence of our Creator." Which always refers grammati- 
cally to the substantive immediately preceding ; and that, in the 
instance just mentioned, is " treasures." The sentence ought to 
have stood thus : " It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, 
to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, which nothing can 
protect us against," &c. 

With regard to relatives, it may be further observed that 
obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, 
particularly of the pronouns who and they, and them and theirs, 
when we have occasion to refer to different persons ; as in the 
following sentence of Tillotson. " Men look with an evil eye 
upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation 
obscures them, and their commendable qualities stand in their 
light; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over 
them, that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure 
them." This is altogether careless writing. When we find these 
personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we have often no 
method left, but to throw the whole sentence into some other 
form, which may avoid those frequent references to persons who 
have before been mentioned. 

To have the relation of every word and member of a sentence 
marked in the most proper and distinct manner, not only gives 
clearness to it, but makes the mind pass smoothly and agreeably 
along all the parts of it. — See the Appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER II. Of the Unity of a Sentence. 

The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its Unity. 

In every composition, there is always some connecting princi- 
ple among the parts. Some one object must reign and be pre- 
dominant. But most of all, in a single sentence, is required the 
strictest unity. For the very nature of a sentence implies that one 
proposition is expressed. It may consist of parts, indeed, but 
these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make the 



Unity ] PERSPICUITY, &c. 201 

impression upon the mind of one object, not of many. To preserve 
this unity of a sentence, the following rules must be observed. 

In the first place, During the course of the sentence, the scene 
should be changed as little as possible. We should not be hurried 
by sudden transitions from person. to person, nor from subject to 
subject. There is commonly, in every sentence, some person or 
thing which is the governing word. This should be continued 
so, if possible, from the beginning to the end of it. 

The following sentence varies from this rule : " After we came 
to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all 
my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." In 
this sentence, though the objects contained in it have a sufficient 
connexion with each other, yet, by this manner of representing 
them, by shifting so often both the place and the person, we and 
they, and /and who, they appear in so disunited a view, that the 
sense of connexion is much impaired. The sentence is restored to 
its proper unity, by turning it after the following manner. " Having 
come to an anchor, I was put on shore, where I was welcomed 
by all my friends, and received with the greatest kindness." 

Here follows another instance of departure from the rule* 
" The sultan being dangerously wounded, they carried him to hij 
tent ; and, upon hearing of the defeat of his troops, they put him 
into a litter, which transported him to a place of safety, at the 
distance of ahout fifteen leagues." Better thus: "The sultan 
beuig dangerously wounded, was carried to his tent ; and, on 
hearing of the defeat of his troops, was put into a litter, and 
transported to a place of safety about fifteen leagues distant." 

A second rule under the head of unity, is, Never to crowd into 
one sentence, things which have so little connexion, that they could 
bfar to be divided into two or three sentences. 

The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and ob- 
scure, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences, than by 
one that is overloaded and embarrassed. Examples abound 
in authors. "Archbishop Tillotson," says, an author, " died in 
this year. He was exceedingly beloved by king William and 
queen Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennison, bishop of Lincoln, 
to succeed him." Who would expect the latter part of this sen- 
tence to follow in consequence of the former ? " He was exceed- 
ingly beloved by both king and aueen," is the proposition of the 
sentence. We look for seme proof of ibis, or at least something 
related to it. to follow : when we are on a sudden carried oil' to 
a new proposition. 

The following sentence is still worse. The author, speaking 
of the Greeks under Alexander, says: "Their march was 
through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabitants fared 
hardly, having no other riches than a breed of Jean sheep, whose 
flesh was rank and unsavoury, by reason of their continual feed- 
ing upon sea-fish." Here the scene is changed upon us agai*. 
and again. The march of the Greeks, the description of the in- 
habitants through whose country they travelled, the account of 



202 APPENDIX. [Unity. 

their sheep, and the cause of their sheep being ill-tasted food, 
form a jumble of objects, slightly related to each other, which 
the reader cannot, without much difficulty, comprehend under 
one view. 

These examples have been taken from sentences of no great 
ength, yet very crowded. Writers who deal in long sentences, 
are very apt to be faulty in this article. Take, for an instance, 
the following from Temple. " The usual acceptation takes profit 
and pleasure for two different things, and not only calls the fol- 
lowers or votaries of them by the several names of busy and idle 
men ; but distinguishes the faculties of the mind, that are con- 
versant about them, calling the operations of the first, Wisdom ; 
and of the other, Wit ; which is a Saxon word, used to express 
what the Spaniards and Italians call Ingenio, and the French 
Esprit, both from the Latin, though I think wit more particularly 
signifies that of poetry, as may occur in remarks on the Runic 
language." When the reader arrives at the end of this perplexed 
sentence, he is surprised to find himself at so great distance from 
the object with which he set out. 

Long, involved, and intricate sentences, are great blemishes 
in composition. In writers of considerable correctness, we find a 
period sometimes running out so far, and comprehending so many 
particulars, as to be more properly a discourse than a sentence. 
An author, speaking of the progress of our languge after the time 
of Cromwell, runs on in this manner : " To this succeeded that 
licentiousness which entered with the restoration, and, from in«= 
fecting our religion and morals, fell to corrupt our language ; which 
last was not like to be much improved by those who at that time 
made up the court of king Charles the Second ; either such as had 
followed him in his banishment, or who had been altogether con- 
versant in the dialect of these times, or young men who had beem 
educated in the same country : so that the court, which used to be 
the standard of correctness and propriety of speech, was then, and 
I think havS ever since continued, the worst school in England for 
that accomplishment ; and so will remain, till better care be 
taken in the education of our nobility, that they may set out into 
the world with some foundation of literature, in order to qualify 
them for patterns of politeness." 

The author, in place of a sentence, has here given a loose 
dissertation upon several subjects. How many different facts, 
reasonings, and observations, are here presented to the mind at 
once ! and yet so linked together by the author, that they all 
make parts of a sentence, which admits of no greater division in 
pointing than a colon, between any of its members. 

It may be of use here to give a specimen of a long sentence, 
broken down into several periods ; by which we shall more 
clearly perceive the disadvantages of long sentences, and how 
easily they may be amended. Here follows the sentence in its 
original form : " Though in yesterday's paper we showed how 
every thing that is great, new or beautiful, is apt to afiect the 



Unitt.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 203 

imagination with pleasure, we must own, that it is impossible foi 
us to assign the necessary cause of this pleasure, because we 
know neither the nature of an idea, nor the substance of a human 
soul : and therefore, for want of such a lijht, all that we can do, 
in speculations of this kind, is, to reflect on those operations of 
the soul that are most agreeable ; and to range, under their pro- 
per heads, what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind, without 
being able to trace out the several necessary and efficient causes, 
from whence the pleasure or displeasure arises." 

The following amendment, besides breaking down the period 
into several sentences, exhibits some other useful alterations : 
" In yesterday's paper, we showed that every thing which is great, 
new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination with pleasure. 
We must own, that it is impossible for us to assign the efficient 
cause of this pleasure, because we know not the nature either 
of an idea, or of the human soul. All that we can do, therefore, 
in speculations of this kind, is to reflect on the operations of the 
soul which are most agreeable, and to range under proper heads 
what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind." 

A third rule for preserving the unity of sentences, is, to keep 
clear of all unnecessary parentheses. 

On some occasions, when the sense is not too long suspended 
by them, and when they are introduced in a proper place, they 
may add both to the vivacity and to the energy of the sentence. 
But for the most part their effect is extremely bad. They are 
wheels within wheels ; sentences in the midst of sentences ; the 
perplexed method of disposing of some thought, which a writer 
wants judgment to introduce in its proper place. 

The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and proper ; 
" And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
" (What can exalt the bounty more ?) for thee." 
Kut in the following sentence, we become sensible of an impro- 
priety in the use of it. " If your hearts secretly reproach you 
for the wrong choice you have made, (as there is time for repent- 
ance and retreat ; and a return to wisdom is always honoura- 
ble,) bethink yourselves that the evil is not irreparable." It 
would be much better to express in a separate sentence, the 
thoughts contained in this parenthesis ; thus : " If your hearts 
secretly reproach you for the wrong choice you have made, be- 
think yourselves that the evil is not irreparable. Still there is 
time for repentance and retreat ; and a return to wisdom is always 
honourable." — See the Appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER III. Of the Strength of a Sentence. 

The third requisite of a perfect sentence, is, Strength. 

By this is meant such a disposition and management of the 
several words and members, as shall bring out the sense to the 
best advantage, and give every word and every member, its due 
weight and force. 

A sentence may be dear, it may also be compact in all its parts. 



204 APPENDIX. [Strength 

or have the requisite unity, and yet, by some circumstance in the 
structure, it may fail in that strength of impression, which a better 
management would have produced. 

The first rule for ]gfc>moti ng the strength of a sentence is, to 
prune it of all redundant words and members. 

It is a general maxim, that any words which do not add some 
importance to the meaning of a sentence, always injure it. Care 
should therefore be exercised with respect to synonymous words, 
expletives, circumlocutions, tautologies, and the expressions of 
unnecessary circumstances. The attention becomes remiss, when 
words are multiplied without a correspondent multiplication of 
ideas. " Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honour 
of it ;" is better language than to say, " Being content with de- 
serving it," &c. 

"In the Attic commonwealth," says an author, " it was the 
privilege and birthright of every citizen and poet, to rail aloud and 
in public." Better simply thus : " In the Attic commonwealth, it 
was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public." 

Another expresses himself thus : u They returned back again 
to the same city from whence they came forth ;" instead of 
" They returned to the city whence they came." The five words, 
back, again, same, from, and forth, are mere expletives, that have 
neither use nor beauty, and are therefore to be regarded as 
encumbrances. . '^ 

The word but is often improperly used with that : as, " There 
can be no doubt but that he seriously means what he says." It 
is not only useless, but cumbersome: " There can be no doubt 
hat he seriously means what he says." By transposing the parts 
of the sentence, we shall immediately perceive the propriety of 
omitting this word: "That he seriously means what he says, 
there can be no doubt." 

" I am honestly, seriously, and unalterably of opinion, that 
nothing can possibly be more incurably and emphatically de- 
structive, or more decisively fatal, to a kingdom, than the intro- 
duction of thoughtless dissipation, and the pomp of lazy luxury." 
Would not the full import of this noisy sentence be better ex- 
pressed thus: " I am of opinion, that nothing is more ruinous to 
a kingdom, than luxury and dissipation." 

Some writers use much circumlocution in expressing their 
ideas. A considerable one, for so very simple a thing as a man's 
wounding himself, Siys, " To mangle, or wound, his outward 
form and constitution, his natural limbs or body." 

But, on some occasions, circumlocution has a peculiar force ; 
as in the following sentence : " Shall not the Judge of all the earth 
do right ?" 

In the sentences which follow, the ill effects of tautology appear. 

'* So it is, that I must be forced to get home, partly by stealth 
and partly by force" 

" Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal love 
and esteem of all men." 



Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &c. tm 

The subsequent sentence contains several unnecessary circum- 
stances. c * On receiving this information, be aros*5, went cat 9 
saddled his horse, mounted him, and rod* to town. • All is im- 
plied in saying, u On receiving this information, he roote to 
town." 

This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so strongly cha- 
racteristic of the simple style of remote ages, that, in boo** o( 
the highest antiquity, particularly the Bible, it is not at a)* un- 
graceful. Of this kind are the following scriptural phrases. 
" He lifted up his voice, and wept. * " He opened his mouth, 
and said." It is true, that, in strictness, they are not necessary 
to the narration, but they are of some importance to the compo- 
sition, as bearing the venerable signature of ancient simplicity 
It may, on this occasion, be further observed, that the language 
of the present translation of the Bible, ought not to be v?ewe<J 
in an exceptionable light, though some parts of it may appear fcn 
be obsolete. • From universal admission, this language has be- 
come so familiar and intelligible, that in all transcripts and allu- 
sions, except where the sense is evidently injured, it ought to he 
carefully preserved. And it may also be justly remarked, that, 
on religious subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language 
is attended with peculiar force and propriety. 

Though it promotes the strength of a sentence, to contract a 
roundabout method of expression, and to lop off excrescences, 
yet we should avoid the extreme of pruning too closely : some 
leaves should be left to shelter and surround the fruit. Even 
synonymous expressions may, on some occasions, be used with 
propriety. One is, when an obscurer term, which we cannot 
well avoid employing, needs to be explained by one that is clearer 
The other is, when the language of the emotions is exhibited. 
Emotion naturally dwells on its object, and when the reader also 
feels interested, repetition and synonymy have frequently an 
agreeable effect. 

The following passage, taken from Addison, who delighted in 
a full and flowing style, may, by some persons, be deemed not 
very exceptionable. " But there is nothing that makes its way 
more directly to the soul than beauty, which immediately diffuses 
a secret satisfaction and complacency through the imagination 
and gives a finishing to any tiring that is great or uncommon 
The very first discovery of it sirikes the mind with inward joy 
and spreads a cheerfulness and delight through all its faculties.' 
Some degree of verbosity may be discovered in these sentences 
as phrases are repeated which seem little more than the echo of 
one another; such as — diffusing satisfaction and complacency 
through the imagination — striking the mind with inward joy— 
spreading cheerfulness and delight through all its faculties. But 
perhaps, some redundancy is more allowable on such lively sub 
jects, than it would be on other occasions. 

After removing superfluities, the second rule far promoting th* 
strength of a sentence, is, to attend particularly ti iht use of copul* 

S 



206 APPENDIX. [Strength 

tives, relatives, and all the particles employed for transition ana 
connexion. 

These little words, but, and, or, which, whose, where, then, there- 
fore, because, &c. are frequently the most important words of any ; 
they are the joints or hinges upon which all sentences turn ; and, 
of course, much of their strength must depend upon such parti- 
cles. The varieties in using them are, indeed, so many, that no 
particular system of rules respecting them can be given. Some 
observations, tending to illustrate the rule, may, however, be 
mentioned 

What is called splitting particles, or separating a preposition 
from the noun which it governs, is to be avoided. As if I should 
say, " Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often 
be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune." Here we are put 
to a stand in thought, being obliged to rest a little on the prepo- 
sition by itself, which, at the same time, carries no significancy, 
till it is joined to its proper substantive. 

Some writers needlessly multiply demonstrative and relative 
particles, by the frequent use of such phraseology as this : u There 
is nothing which disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of lan- 
guage." In introducing a subject, or laying down a proposition, 
to which we demand particular attention, this sort of style is 
very proper ; but, on common occasions, it is better to express 
ourselves more simply and briefly : " Nothing disgusts us sooner 
than the empty pomp of language." 

Other writers make a practice of omitting the relative, where 
they think the meaning can be understood without it : as, M The 
man I love ;" " The dominions we possessed, and the conquests 
we made." But though this elliptical style is intelligible, and is 
allowable in conversation and epistolary writing, yet in all wri- 
tings of a serious and dignified kind, it ought to be avoided. There, 
the relative should always be inserted in its proper place, and 
the construction filled up. " The man whom I love." " The 
dominions which we possessed, and the conquests which we 
made." 

With regard to the copulative particle and, which occurs so 
frequently in all kinds of composition, several observations are 
to be made. First, it is evident, that the unnecessary repetition 
of it enfeebles style. The following sentence from Sir William 
Temple, will serve for an instance. He is speaking of the re- 
finement of the French language : " The academy, set up by 
Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country. 
and divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, 
brought this into vogue ; and the French wits have, for this last 
age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and lan- 
guage ; and, indeed, with such success, that it can hardly be 
equalled, and runs equally through their verse and their prose." 
Here are no fewer than eight ands in one sentence. Some 
writers often make their sentences drag in this manner, by 8 
careless multiplication of copulatives. 



Strength.] ERSP1CUITY, &c. 207 

But, in the next place, it is worthy of observation, that though 
the natural use of the conjunction and, is to join objects together, 
yet, in fact, by dropping the conjunction, we often mark a closer 
connexion, a quicker succession of objects, than when it is in- 
serted between them. " I came, I saw, I conquered," expresses 
with more force the rapidity and quick succession of conquest, 
than if connecting particles had been used. 

On the other hand, when we seek to prevent a quick transi- 
tion from one object to another, when we are making some enu- 
meration, in which we wish that the objects should appear as 
distinct from each other as possible, and that the mind should 
rest, for a moment, on each object by itself, copulatives may be 
multiplied with peculiar advantage. As when an author says, 
"Such a man might fall a victim to power; but truth, and rea- 
son, and liberty, would fall with him." Observe, in the following 
enumeration made by the Apostle Paul, what additional weight 
and distinctness are given to each particular, by the repetition 
of a conjunction : " I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, 
nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor 
things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, 
6hall be able to separate us from the love of God." 

The words designed to mark the transition from one sentence 
to another, and the connexion between sentences, are sometimes 
very incorrect, and perform their office in an imperfect and ob- 
scure manner. The following is an example of this kind of 
inaccuracy. " By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any 
single object only, but the largeness of a whole view. Such are 
the prospects of an open champaign country, a vast uncultivated 
desert," &c. The word such signifies of that nature or quality, 
which necessarily presupposes some adjective or word descrip- 
tive of a quality going before, to which it refers. But, in the 
foregoing sentence, there is no such adjective. The author had 
spoken of greatness in the abstract only ; and, therefore, such 
has no distinct antecedent to which we can refer it. The sentence 
would have been introduced with more propriety, by saying, To 
this class belong, or under this head are ranged, the prospects, &c. 

As connective particles are the hinges, tacks, and pins, by 
which the words in the same clause, the clauses in the same 
member, the members in the same sentence, and even the sen- 
tences in the same discourse, are united together, and their rela- 
tions suggested, so they should not be either too frequently re- 
peated, awkwardly exposed to view, or made up of polysyllables, 
when shorter words would as well convey the meaning. Not- 
withstanding that, insomuch thai, forasmuch as, furthermore, &c. 
are tedious words, which tend to overload and perplex a sentence. 
We shall conclude this head with two remarks on the subject 
of inserting or omitting the conjunctions. The first is, that the 
illative conjunctions, the casual, and the disjunctive, when they 
suit the sense, can more rarely be dispensed with than the copu- 
lative. The second is, that the omission of copulatives always 



208 APPENDIX. [Strength. 

succeeds best, when the connexion of the thoughts is either very 
close, or very distant. It is mostly in the intermediate cases that 
the conjunction is deemed necessary. When the connexion in 
thought is very distant, the copulative appeals absurd ; and when 
very close, superfluous. 

The third rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to 
dispose of the capital ivord, or words, so that they may make the 
greatest impression. 

That there are, in every sentence, such capital words on which 
the meaning principally rests, every one must see ; and that these 
words should possess a conspicuous and distinguished place, is 
equally plain. For the most part, with us, the important words are 
placed in the beginning of the sentence. So in the following pas- 
sages : ''Silver and gold have T none; but such as I have, give 
I unto theej' r &c. "Your fathers, where are the}'? and the pro- 
phets, do they live for ever?" 

Sometimes, however, when we intend to give weight to a sen- 
tence, it is of advantage to suspend the meaning for a little, and 
then bring it out full at the close. "Thus,'' says an author, "on 
whatever side we contemplate this ancient writer, what principal - 
ly strikes us, is his wonderful invention." 

To accomplish this end, the placing of capital words in a con 
spicuouspart of the sentence, the natural order of our language 
must sometimes be inverted. According to this natural order, 
the nominative has the first place, the verb the second, and the 
objective, if it be an active verb that is employed, has the third. 
Circumstances follow the nominative, the verb, or the objective, 
as they happen to belong to any of them. " Diana of the Ephe- 
sians is great," is the natural order of the sentence. But its 
strength is increased by inversion, thus : " Great is Diana of the 
Ephesians." " I profess, in the sincerity of my heart," <foo. is 
the natural order of a circumstance. Inverted thus : " In the 
sincerity of my heart, I profess," &c. 

Some authors greatly invert the natural order of sentences ; 
others write mostly in a natural style. Each method has its ad- 
vantages. The inverted possesses strength, dignity, and varie- 
ty : the other, more nature, ease, and simplicity. We shall give 
an instance of each method, taken from writers of considerable 
sminence. The first is of the inverted order. The author is 
speaking of the misery of vice. "This, as to the complete im- 
moral state, is, what of their own accord, men readily remark. 
Where there is this absolute degeneracy, this total apostacy from 
all candour, truth, or equity, there are few who do not see and 
acknowledge the misery which is consequent. Seldom is the 
case misconstrued when at worst. The misfortune is, that we 
look not on this depravity, nor consider how it stands in less de- 
grees. As if, to be absolutely immoral, were, indeed, the great- 
est misery ; but to be so in a little degree, should be no misery or 
harm at all. Which, to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, 
that it is the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manne. 4 



Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 209 

maimed or distorted; but that to lose the use only of one limb, 
or to be impaired in some single organ or member, is no ill wor- 
thy the least notice." Here is no violence done to the language 
thongn there are many inversions. 

The following is an example of natural construction : " Our 
sight is the most perfect, and the most delightful, of all our senses ; 
It fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas, converses with 
its objects at the greatest distance, and continues the longest in 
action, without being tired, or satiated with its proper enjoyments. 
The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of extension, 
shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours ; 
but, at the same time, it is very much straitened and confined in 
its operations," &c. 

But whether we use inversion or not, and in whatever part of 
the sentence we dispose of the capital words, it is always a point 
of consequence, that these capital words should stand clear and 
disentangled from any other words that would clog them. Thus, 
when there are any circumstances of time, place, or other limita- 
tions, which the principal object of our sentence requires to have 
connected with it, we must take care to dispose of them, so as 
nc t to cloud that principal object, nor to bury it under a load of 
circumstances. This will be made clearer by an example. " Ii 
whilst they profess only to please, they secretly advise, and give 
instruction, they may now perhaps, as well as formerly, b<3 es- 
te 5med, with justice, the best and most honourable among au- 
tl ors." This a well constructed sentence. It contains a great 
n any circumstances and adverbs necessary to qualify the mean- 
ir g ; only, secretly, as well, perhaps, now, with justice, formerly ; 
y; ft these are placed so properly, as neither to embarrass, nor 
v eaken the sentence ; while that which is the capital object in it, 
v z. " being justly esteemed the best and most honourable among 
i ithors," comes out in the conclusion clear and detached, and 
| 3ssesses its proper place. See, now, what would have been the 
f Feet of a different arrangement: " If, whilst they profess to 
} lease only, they advise and give instruction secretly, they may 
\ e esteemed the best an<i most honourable among authors, with 
j istice, perhaps, now as wp 11 ?„s formerly. " Here we have pre- 
i isely the same words, and the same sense ; but by means of the 
I ircumstances being so intermingled as to clog the capital words, 
1 ie whole becomes feeble and perplexed. 

The fourth rule for promoting the strength of sentences, is, 
t hat a weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a 
stronger one; and that, when our sentence co?isists of two members, 
ike longer should, generally, be the concluding one. 

Thus, to say, " When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter 
ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them," is both 
more easy and more clear, than to begin with the longer part of 
the proposition: "We flatter ourselves with the belief that we 
have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us." 

In general, it is agreeable to find a sentence rising upon us 

S 2 



2J0 APPENDIX. [Strength 

and growing in its importance, to the very last word, when this 
construction can be managed without affectation. " If we rise 
yet higher," says Addison, " and consider the fixexl stars as so 
many oceans of flame, that are each of them attended with a dif- 
ferent set of planets ; and still discover new firmaments and new 
lights that are sunk further in those unfathomable depths of 
ether: we are lost in such a labyrinth of suns and worlds, and 
confounded with the magnificence and immensity of nature." 

The fifth rule for the strength of sentences is,to avoid concluding 
them with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word. 

Agreeably to this rule, we should not conclude with any of the 
particles, of, to, from, with, by. For instance, it is a great deal 
better to say, "Avarice is a crime of which wise men are often 
guilty," than to say, "Avarice is a crime which wise men are 
often guilty of." This is a phraseology which all correct writers 
shun ; and with reason. For as the mind cannot help resting a 
little, on the import of the word which closes the sentence, it 
must be disagreeable to be left pausing on a word, which does 
not, by itself, produce any idea. 

For the same reason, verbs which are used in a compound 
sense, with some of these prepositions, are, though not so bad, 
yet still not proper conclusions of a period : such as, bring about, 
lay hold of, come over to, clear up, and many other of this kind ; 
instead of which, if we can employ a simple verb, it always ter- 
minates the sentence with more strength. Even the pronoun it, 
should, if possible, be avoided in the conclusion: especially when 
it is joined with some of the prepositions ; as, with it, in it, to it. 
We shall be sensible of this in the following sentence. *' There 
is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing and triumphant considera- 
tion in religion, than this, of the perpetual progress which the 
soul makes towards the perfection of its nature, without ever ar- 
riving at a period in i£." How much more agreeable the sen- 
tence, if it had been so constructed as to close with the word 
period ! 

Besides particles and pronouns, any phrase, which expresses 
a circumstance only, always appears badly in the rear of a sen- 
tence. We may judge of this by the following passage: "Let 
me therefore conclude by repeating, that division has caused all 
the mischief we lament; that union alone can retrieve it; and 
that a great advance towards this union, was the coalition of 
parties, so happily begun, so successfully carried on, and of late 
so unaccountably neglected ; to say no worse." This last phrase, 
" to say no worse," occasions a falling off at the end. The pro- 
per disposition of such circumstances in a sentence, requires at- 
tention, in order to adjust them so as shall consist equally with 
the perspicuity and the strength of the period. — Though neces- 
sary parts, they are, however, like irregular stones in a building 
which try the skill of an artist, where to place them with the 
least offence. But it must be remembered, that the close is al- 
ways an unsuitable place for them. Notwithstanding what has 



Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &e. QU 

heen said against concluding a period with an adverb, &c. this 
must not be understood to refer to such words, when the stress 
and signiticancy of the sentence rest chiefly upon them. In this 
case they are not to be considered as circumstances, but as the 
principal objects : as in the following sentence. " In their pros- 
perity, my friends shail never hear of me, in their adversity, al- 
ways." Here, "never" and "always" being emphatical words, 
were to be so placed as to make a strong impression. 

The sixth rule relating to the strength of a sentence, is, that in 
the members of a sentence^ where two things are compared or con- 
trasted with one another ; where either a resemblance or an opposi- 
tion is intended to be expressed ; some resemblance, in the language 
and construction, should be preserved. For when the things them- 
selves correspond to each other, we naturally expect to find a similar 
correspondence in the words. 

Thus, when it is said, "The wise man is happy when he gains 
his own approbation ; the fool, when he recommends himself to 
the applause of those about him;" the opposition would have 
been more regular, if it had been expressed thus: " The wise 
man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, 
when he gains that of others." 

" A friend exaggerates a man's virtues : an enemy inflames his 
crimes." Better thus : " A friend exaggerates a man's virtues ; 
an enemy, his crimes." 

The following passage from Pope's Preface to his Homer, fully 
exemplifies the rule just given : u Homer was the greater genius ; 
Virgil, the better artist : in the one we most admire the man ; in 
the other the work. Homer hurries us with a commanding 
impetuosity ; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer 
scatters with a generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a care- 
ful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches 
with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a 
constant stream." — Periods thus constructed, when introduced 
with propriety, and not returning too often, have a sensible 
beauty. But we must beware of carrying our attention to this 
beauty too far. It ought only to be occasionally studied, when 
comparison or opposition of ohjects naturally leads to it. If 
such a construction as this be aimed at, in all our sentences, it 
leads to a disagreeable uniformity ; produces a regularly return- 
ing clink in the period, which tires the ear ; and plainly discovers 
' affectation. 

The seventh rule for promoting the strength and effect of sen- 
tences, is, to attend to the sound, the harmony and easy flow, of the 
words and members. 

Sound is a quality much inferior to sense ; yet such as must 
not be disregarded. For, as long as sounds are the vehicle or con- 
veyance for our ideas, there will be a very considerable connexion 
between the idea which is conveyed, and the nature of the 
sound which conveys it. — Pleasing ideas, and forcible reasoning, 
can hardly be transmitted to the mind, by means of harsh and 



212 APPENDIX. [Strength 

disagreeable sounds. The mind revolts at such sounds, and the 
impression of the sentiment must consequently be weakened. 
The observations which we have to make on this subject, respect 
the choice of words; their arrangement; the order and disposi- 
tion of the members ; and the cadence or close of sentences. 

We begin with the choice of words. It is evident, that words 
are most agreeable to the ear, when they are composed of smooth 
and liquid sounds, in which there is a proper intermixture of 
vowels and consonants ; without too many harsh consonants 
rubbing against each other ; or too many open vowels in succes- 
sion, to cause a hiatus, or disagreeable aperture of the mouth. 

It may always be assumed as a principle, that whatever sounds 
are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same proportion, harsh 
and painful to the ear. Vowels give softness ; consonants, strength 
to the sound of words. The melody of language requires a just 
proportion of each ; and the construction will be hurt, will be 
rendered either grating or effeminate, by an excess of either. 
Long words are commonly more agreeable to the ear than mono- 
syllables. They please it by the composition or succession of 
sounds which they present to it ; and accordingly, the most harmo- 
nious languages abound most in them. Among words of any 
length, those are the most melodious, which do not run wholly 
either upon long or short syllables, but are composed of an inter- 
mixture of them : such as, repent, profess, powerful, velocity, celerity, 
independent, impetuosity. 

If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we must avoid the 
use of such words as the following ; 1. Such as are composed of 
words already compounded, the several parts of which are not 
easily, and therefore not closely united : as, " Unsuccessful ness, 
ivrongheadedness, tenderheartedness ;" 2. Such as have the sylla- 
bles which immediately follow the accented syllable, crowded 
with consonants that do not easily coalesce: as, " Questionless, 
chroniclers, conventiclers :" 3. Such as have too many syllables 
following the accented syllable : as, " Primarily, cursorily, sum- 
marily, per emptoriness :" 4. Such as have a short or unaccented 
syllable repeated, or followed by another short or unaccented 
syllable very much resembling: as, " Holily, sillily, lowlily, far- 
riery." A little harshness, by the collision of consonants, which 
nevertheless our organs find no difficulty in articulating, and 
which do not suggest to the hearer the disagreeable idea either 
of precipitation or of stammering, is by no means a sufficient 
reason for suppressing a useful term. The words hedg'd,fledg'd, 
wedged, drudged, grudged, adjudged, which some have thought 
very offensive, are not exposed to the objections which lie against 
the words above mentioned. We should not do well to introduce 
such hard and strong sounds too frequently ; but when they are 
used sparingly and properly, they have even a good effect. They 
contribute to that variety in sound which is advantageous to 
language. 

The next head, respecting the harmony which results from a 



Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 213 

proper arrangement of words, is a point of greater nicety. For, 
let the words themselves be ever so well chosen, and well sound- 
ing, yet, if they be ill disposed, the melody of the sentence is 
utterly lost, or greatly impaired. That this is the case, the learners 
will perceive by the following examples. "Pleasures simple and 
moderate always are the best :" it would be better to say, " Sim- 
ple and moderate pleasures are always the best." " Office or 
rank may be the recompense of intrigue, versatility, or flattery ;7 
better thus, lt Rank or office may be the recompense of flattery, 
versatility, or intrigue." "A great recommendation of the 
guidance offered by integrity to us, is, that it is by all men easily 
understood :" better in this form; " It is a great recommenda- 
tion of the guidance offered to us by integrity, that it is easily un- 
derstood by all men." In the following examples, the words are 
neither selected nor arranged, so as to produce the most agree- 
able effect. " If we make the best of our life, it is but as a pil- 
grimage, with dangers surrounding it:" better thus, "Our life, 
at the best, is a pilgrimage, and dangers surround it." " We see 
that we are encumbered with difficulties, which we cannot pre- 
vent:" better, "We perceive ourselves involved in difficulties 
that cannot be avoided." " It is plain to any one who views the 
subject, even slightly, that there is nothing here that is without 
allay and pure :" improved by this form ; " It is evident to the 
slightest inspection, that nothing here is unallayed and pure." 

We may take, for an instance of a sentence remarkably harmo- 
nious, the following from Milton's Treatise on Education : "We 
shall conduct you to a hill-side, laborious indeed, at the first 
ascent ; but else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly prospects, 
and melodious sounds on every side, that the harp of Orpheus 
was not more charming." Every thing in this sentence con- 
spires to promote the harmony. The words are well chosen ; 
full of liquids, and soft sounds; laborious, smooth, green, goodly, 
melodious, charming; and these words so artfully arranged, that 
were we to alter the situation of any one of them, we should, 
presently, be sensible of the melody's suffering. 

To promote this harmonious arrangement of words, the fol- 
lowing general directions will be found of some use. 1st, When 
the preceding word ends with a vowel, let the subsequent one 
begin with a consonant; and vice versa, A true friend, a cruel 
enemy, are smoother and easier to the voice, than a true union, a 
cruel destroyer. But when it is more perspicuous or convenient, 
for vowels or consonants to end one word and begin the next, 
it is proper that the vowels be a long and short one ; and that 
the consonants be either a liquid and a mute, or liquids of dif- 
ferent sorts : thus, a lovely offspring ; a purer design ; a calm re- 
treat ; are more fluent than, a happy union, a brief petition, a cheap 
triumph, a putrid distemper, a calm matron, a clean nurse From 
these examples, the student will perceive the importance of accu- 
rately understanding the nature of vowels and consonants, liquids 
and mutes; with the connexion and influence which subsist 



SU APPENDIX. [Strength. 

amongst them. 2d, In general, a considerable number of long 
or short words near one another should be avoided. " Disap- 
pointment in our expectations is wretchedness :" better thus ; 
" Disappointed hope is misery." " No course of joy can please 
us long :" better, " No course of enjoyment can delight us long." 
A succession of words having the same quantity in the accented 
syllables, whether it be long or short, should also be avoided, 
" James was needy, feeble, and fearful :" improved thus, u James 
was timid, feeble, and destitute." " They could not be happy ; 
for he was silly, pettish, and sullen :" better thus ; " They could 
not be happy ; for he was simple, peevish, and gloomy." 3d, 
Words which begin alike, or end alike, must not come together ; 
and the last syllable of the preceding word, should not be the 
same as the first syllable of the subsequent one. It is not so 
pleasing and harmonious to say, " This is a convenient contri- 
vance ;" " He is an indulgent parent ;" " She behaves with uni- 
form formality ;" as, " This is a useful contrivance ;" " He is a 
kind parent ;" " She behaves with unvaried formality." 

We proceed to consider the members of a sentence, with re- 
gard to harmony. They should not be too long, nor dispropor- 
tionate to each other. When they have a regular and propor 
tional division, they are much easier to the voice, are more clear- 
ly understood, and better remembered, than when this rule is 
not attended to: for whatever tires the voice, and offends the 
ear, is apt to mar the strength of the expression, and to degrade 
the sense of the author. And this is a sufficient ground for 
paying attention to the order and proportion of sentences, and 
the different parts of which they consist. The following passage 
exhibits sentences in which the different members are proportion- 
ally arranged. 

Temple, speaking sarcastically of man, says ; " But his pride 
is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge 
he supplies by sufficiency. When he has looked about him as 
far as he can, he concludes there is no more to be seen ; when 
he is at the end of his line, he is at the bottom of the ocean ; 
when he has shot his best, he is sure none ever did, or ever can, 
shoot better, or beyond it. His own reason he holds to be the 
certain measure of truth ; and his own knowledge, of what is 
possible in nature." Here every thing is at once easy to the 
breath, grateful to the ear, and intelligible to the understanding. 
See another example of the same kind, in the 17th and 18th 
verses of the 3d chapter of the prophet Habakkuk. We may 
remark here, that our present version of the Holy Scriptures, 
especially of the Psalms, abounds with instances of an harmoni- 
ous arrangement of the words and members of sentences. 

In the following quotation from Tillotson, we shall becom > 
sensible of an effect very different from that of the preceding 
sentences. " This discourse, concerning the easiness of the Di- 
vine commands, does all along suppose and acknowledge the 
difficulties of the first entrance upon a religious course ; except 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 215 

only in those persons who have had the happiness to be trained 
up to religion, by the easy and insensible degrees of a pious and 
virtuous education." Here there is some degree of harshness 
and unpleasantness, owing principally to this, that there is pro- 
perly no mortithan one pause or rest in the sentence, falling be- 
twixt the two members into which it is divided : each of which 
is so long as to occasion a considerable stretch of the breath in 
pronouncing it. 

With respect to the cadence or close of a sentence, care should 
be taken, that it be not abrupt, or unpleasant. The following 
instances may be sufficient to show the propriety of some atten- 
tion to this part of the rule. " Virtue, diligence, and industry, 
joined with good temper and prudence, are prosperous in gene- 
ral." It would be better thus : "Virtue, diligence, and industry, 
joined with good temper and prudence, have ever been found 
the surest road to prosperity." An author speaking of the Trinity, 
expresses himself thus : " It is a mystery which we firmly be- 
lieve the truth of, and humbly adore the depth of." How much 
better would it have been with this transposition : " It is a mys- 
tery, the truth of which we firmly believe, and the depth of which 
we humbly adore." 

In order to give a sentence this proper close, the longest mem- 
ber of it, and the fullest words, should be reserved to the con 
elusion. But in the distribution of the members, and in the ca 
dence of the period, as well as in the sentences themselves, vari 
ety must be observed ; for the mind soon tires with a frequent 
repetition of the same tone. 

Though attention to the words and members, and the close 
of sentences, must not be neglected, yet it must also be kept 
within proper bounds. Sense has its own harmony ; and in no 
instance should perspicuity, precision, or strength of sentiment, 
be sacrificed to sound. All unmeaning words, introduced mere- 
ly to round the period, or fill up the melody, are great blemishes 
in writing. They are childish and trivial ornaments, by which a 
sentence always loses more in point of weight, than it can gain 
by such additions to its sound. See the Octavo Grammar, on this 
chapter. 

See also the appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER IV. Of Figures of Speech. 

The fourth requisite of a perfect sentence, is a judicious use 
of the Figures of Speech. 

As figurative language is to be met with in almost every sen- 
tence ; and, when properly employed, confers beauty and strength 
on composition ; some knowledge of it appears to be indispen- 
sable to the scholars, who are learning to form their sentences 
with perspicuity, accuracy, and force. We shall, therefore, enu- 
merate the principal figures, and give them some explanation. 

In general, Figures of Speech imply some departure from 
simplicity of expression ; the idea which we mean to convey 's 






216' APPENDIX. [Figutues 

expressed in a particular manner, and with some circumstance 
added, which is designed to render the impression more strong 
and vivid. When I say, for instance, "That a good man enjoyi 
comfort in the midst of adversity ;" I just express my thoughts 
in the simplest manner possible : but when I say, "•« the upright 
there ariseth light in darkness ;" the same sentiment is expressed 
in a figurative style ; a new circumstance is introduced ; " light/' 
is put in the place of "comfort," and "darkness" is used to suggest 
the idea of adversity. In the same maimer, to say, u It is im- 
possible, by any search we can make, to explore the Divine Na- 
ture fully," is to make a simple proposition : but when we say, 
" Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord ? Canst thou find 
out the Almighty to perfection ? It is high as heaven, what canst 
thou do ? deeper than hell, what canst thou know ?" this intro- 
duces a figure into style; the proposition being not only expressed, 
but with it admiration and astonishment. 

But, though figures imply a deviation from what may be reck- 
oned the most simple form of speech, we are not thence to con- 
clude, that they imply any thing uncommon, or unnatural. On 
many occasions, they are both the most natural, and the most 
common method of uttering our sentiments. It would be very 
difficult to compose any discourse without using them often ; 
nay, there are few sentences of considerable length, in which 
there does not occur some expression that may be termed a 
figure. This being the case, we may see the necessity of some 
attention, in order to understand their nature and use. 

At the first rise of language, men would begin with giving 
names to the different objects which they discerned, or thought 
of. The stock of words would, then, be very small. As men's 
ideas multiplied, and their acquaintance with objects increased, 
their store of names and words would also increase. But to the 
vast variety of objects and ideas, no language is adequate. No 
anguage is so copious, as to have a separate word for every 
separate idea. Men naturally sought to abridge this labour of 
multiplying words without end ; and, in order to lay less burden 
on their memories, made one word, which they had already 
appropriated to a certain idea or object, stand also for some other 
idea or object, between which and the primary one, they found, 
or fancied, some relation. The names of sensible objects, were 
the words most early introduced ; and were, by degrees, ex- 
tended to those mental objects, of which men had more obscure 
conceptions, and to which they found it more difficult to assign 
distinct names. They borrowed, therefore, the name of some 
sensible idea, where their imagination found some affinity. Thus, 
we speak of a piercing judgment, and a clear head ; a soft or a hard 
heart ; &?&vgn or a smooth behaviour. We say, inflamed by anger, 
warmed by Jove, swelled with pride, melted into grief; and these are 
almost the only significant words which we have for such ideas. 

The principal advantages of figures of speech, are the two fol- 
lowing. 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 217 

First, They enrich language, and render it more copious. By 
their means, words and phrases are multiplied, for expressing 
all sorts of ideas; for describing even the minutest differences: 
the nicest shades and colours of thought; which no language 
could possibly do by proper words alone, without assistance from 
Tropes. 

Secondly, They frequently give us a much clearer and more 
striking view of the principal object, than we could have, if it 
were expressed in simple terms, and divested of its accessory 
idea. By a well chosen figure, even conviction is assisted, and 
the impression of a truth upon the mind, made more lively and 
forcible than it would otherwise be. We perceive this in the 
following illustration of Young: " When we dip too deep in plea- 
sure, we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and nox- 
ious :" and in this instance : " A heart boiling with violent pas- 
sions, will always send up infatuating fumes to the head." An 
image that presents so much congruity between a moral ana" a 
sensible idea, serves, like an argument from analogy, to enforce 
what the author asserts, and to induce belief. 

Having considered the general nature of figures, we proceed 
next to particularize such of them as are of the most importance ; 
viz. Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, Metonymy, Synecdoche, 
Personification, Apostrophe, Antithesis, Interrogation, Excla 
mation, Amplification or Climax, &c. 

A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance 
which one object bears to another. Hence, it is much allied to 
simile or comparison, and is indeed no other than a comparison, 
expressed in an abridged form. When I say of some greaj 
minister, " that he upholds the state, like a pillar which support! 
the weight of a whole edifice," 1 fairly make a comparison: but 
when 1 say of such a minister, " That he is the pillar of the state," 
it now becomes a metaphor. In the latter case, the comparison 
between the minister and a pillar is made in the mind; but it is 
expressed without any of the words that denote comparison. 

The following are examples of metaphor taken from Scripture: 
u I will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and will be the 
glory in the midst of her." " Thou art my rock and my for- 
tress." " Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path." 

Rules to be observed in the use of metaphors. 

1 Metaphors, as well as other figures, should, on no occasion, be 
stuck on profusely ; and should always be such as accord with the 
strain of our sentiment. The latter part of the following passage, 
from a late historian, is, in this respect, very exceptionable. He 
is giving an account of the famous act of parliament against ir- 
regular marriages in England. " The bill," says he, " under- 
went a great number of alterations and amendments, which 
were not effected without violent contest. At length, however, 
it was floated through both houses on the tide of a great majori* 
ty, and steered into the safe harbour of royal approbation." 

2 Care should be taken that the resemblance, which is thefoun- 

T 



218 APPENDIX. [Figures. 

dation of the metaphor, be clear and perspicuous, not farfetched, nor 
difficult to discover. The transgression of this rule makes what 
are called harsh or forced metaphors; which are displeasing, 
because they puzzle the reader, and instead of illustrating the 
thought, render it perplexed and intricate. 

3 In the third place, we should be careful, in the conduct of 
metaphors, never to jumble metaphorical and plain language toge- 
ther. An author, addressing himself to the king, says: 

To thee the world its present homage pays ; 

The harvest early, but mature the praise. 
It is plain, that, had not the rhyme misled him to the choice of 
an improper phrase, he would have said, 

The harvest early, but mature the crop ; 
and so would have continued the figure which he had begun. 
Whereas, by dropping it unfinished, and by employing the lite 
ral word " praise," when we were expecting something that re 
lated to the harvest, the figure is broken, and the two membero 
of the sentence have no suitable correspondence to each other. 

4 We should avoid making two inconsistent metaphors meet 
on one object. This is what is called mixed metaphor, and is in- 
deed one of the greatest misapplications of this figure. One may 
be "sheltered under the patronage of a great man :" but it would 
be wrong to say, u sheltered under the mask of dissimulation :" 
as a mask conceals, but does not shelter. Addison in his letter 
from Italy, says : 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 
The muse, figured as a horse, may be bridled ; but when we 
speak of launching, we make it a ship ; and by no force of ima- 
gination, can it be supposed both a horse and a ship at one mo- 
ment ; bridled, to hinder it from launching. 

The same author, elsewhere, says, " There is not a single view 
of human nature, which is not sufficient to extinguish the seeds 
of pride." Observe the incoherence of the things here joined 
together ; making a view extinguish, and extinguish seeds. 

As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they should not be 
crowded together on the same object ; for the mind has difficulty 
in passing readily through many different views of the same ob* 
ject, presented in quick succession. 

The last rule concerning metaphors, is, that they be not too far 
pursued. If the resemblance, on which the figure is founded, be 
long dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute circumstances, 
we tire the reader, who soon grows weary of this stretch of fancy ; 
and we render our discourse obscure. This is called straining a 
metaphor. Authors of a lively and strong imagination are apt to 
rnn into this exuberance of metaphor. When they hit upon a 
figure that pleases them, they are loth to part with it, and fre- 
quently coh.rt ue it so long, as to become tedious and intricate. 
We may observe, for instance, how the following metaphor is 
spun out 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 219 

Thy thoughts are vagabonds; all outward bound, 

'Midst sands, and rocks, and storms, to cruise for pleasure; 

If gain'd, dear bought ; and better miss'd than gain'd. 

Fancy and sense, from an infected shore, 

Thy cargo bring ; and pestilence the prize : 

Then such a thirst, insatiable thirst, 

By fond indulgence but inflam'd the more; 

Fancy still cruises, when poor sense is tired. 
An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued : sinc*5 
it is the representation of some one thing by another that re- 
sembles it, and which is made to stand for it. We may take 
from the Scriptures a very fine example of an allegory, in the 
80(lh Psalm ; where the people of Israel are represented under the 
image of a vine : and the figure is carried throughout with great 
exactness and beauty. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : 
thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thoupreparedst 
room before it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled 
the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it : and the 
boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her 
boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river. Why hast 
thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the 
way do pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and 
the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we beseech 
thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and 
visit this vine !" See also Ezekiel, xvii. 22 — 24. 

The first and principal requisite in the conduct of an allegory 
is, that the figurative and the literal meaning be not mixed inconsist- 
ently together. Indeed, all the rules that were given for meta- 
phors, may also be applied to allegories, on account of the affinity 
they bear to each other. The only material difference between 
them, besides the one being short and the other being prolonged, 
is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words that 
are connected with it in their proper and natural meaning : as, 
when I say, "Achilles was a lion ;" " An able minister is the pil- 
lar of the state;" the " lion" and the "pillar" are sufficiently 
interpreted by the mention of "Achilles" and the "minister," 
which I join to thein ; but an allegory is, or may be, allowed to 
stand less connected with the literal meaning, the interpreta- 
tion not being so directly pointed out, but left to our own re- 
flection. 

Allegory was a favourite method of delivering instruction in 
ancient times ; for what we call fables or parables, are no other 
than allegories. By words and actions attributed to beasts or 
inanimate objects, the dispositions of men were figured ; and 
what we call the moral, is the unfigured sense or meaning of the 
allegory. 

A Comparison or simile, is, when the resemblance between two 
objects is expressed in form, and generally pursued more fully 
«han the nature of a metaphor admits : as when it is said, "The 
actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which 



220 APPENDIX. [Bum*** 

every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." 
"As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is 
round about his people. " " Behold, how good and how pleasant 
it is for brethren to dwell together in unity! It is like the pre- 
cious ointment, &c. and as the dew that descended upon the 
mountains of Zion." 

The advantage of this figure arises from the illustration which 
the simile employed gives to the principal object ; from the 
clearer view which it presents ; or the more strong impression 
which it stamps upon the mind. Observe the effect of it in the 
following instance. The author is explaining the distinction 
between the powers of sense and imagination in the human 
mind. " As wax," says he, " would not be adequate to the pur- 
pose of signature, if it had not the power to retain as well as to 
receive the impression, the same holds of the soul with respect 
to sense and imagination. Sense is its receptive power ; imagi- 
nation, its retentive. Had it sense without imagination, it would 
not be as wax, but as water, where, though all impressions are 
instantly made, yet as soon as they are made, they are instantly 
lost." 

In comparisons of this nature, the understanding is concerned 
much more than the fancy : and therefore the rules to be observed, 
with respect to them, are, that they be clear, and that they be 
useful ; that they tend to render our conception of the principal 
object more distinct ; and that they do not lead our view aside, 
and bewilder it with any false light. We should always remem- 
ber that similes are not arguments. However apt they may be, 
they do no more than explain the writer's sentiments, they do not 
prove them to be founded on truth. 

Comparisons ought not to be founded on likenesses which are 
too faint and remote. For these, in place of assisting, strain the 
mind to comprehend them, and throw no light upon the subject. 
It is also to be observed, that a comparison which, in the prin- 
cipal circumstances, carries a sufficiently near resemblance, may 
become unnatural and obscure, if pushed too far. Nothing is 
more opposite to the design of this figure, than to hunt after a 
great number of coincidences in minute points, merely to show 
how far the writer's ingenuity can stretch the resemblance. 

A Metonymy is founded on the several relations, of cause and 
effect, container and contained, sign and thing signified. When 
we say ; "They read Milton," the cause is put instead of the 
effect ; meaning u Milton's works." On the other*hand, when 
it is said, " Gray hairs should be respected," we put the effect 
for the cause, meaning by " gray hairs," old age. " The kettle 
boils," is a phrase where the name of the container is substituted 
for that of the thing contained. " To assume the sceptre," is a 
common expression for entering on royal authority ; the sign 
being put for the thing signified. 

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a 
genus for a species, or a species for a genus : in genera) when 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 221 

any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object 
meant ; the figure is then called a Synecdoche or Comprehension. 
It is very common, for instance, to describe a whole object by 
some remarkable part of it : as when we say, " A fleet of twenty 
9tri£, v1 in the place of" ships; 93 when we use the "head" for the 
"person," the " waves'''' for the " sea." In like manner, an attri- 
bute may be put for a subject : as, " Youth" for the " young," the 
" deep," for the " sea;" and sometimes a subject for its attribute: 
Personification or Prosopopoeia, is that figure by which we 
attribute life and action to inanimate objects. The use of this 
figure is very natural and extensive : there is a wonderful prone- 
ness in human nature, under emotion, to animate all objects 
When we say, " the ground thirsts for rain," or, " the earth 
smiles with plenty ;" when we speak of " ambition's being rest- 
less, 31 or, "a disease's being deceitful ;" such expressions show 
the facility with which the mind can accommodate the proper- 
ties of living creatures to things that are inanimate, or to abstract 
conceptions of its own forming. The following are striking ex- 
amples from the Scriptures : " When Israel went out of Egypt, 
the house of Judah from a people of strange language ; the sea 
saw it, and fled: Jordan was driven back! The mountains skipped 
like rams, and the little hills like lambs. What ailed thee, O thou 
sea! that thou fleddest? Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven 
back? Ye mountains, that ye skipped like rams; and ye little 
hills, like lambs ? Tremble, thou earth, at the presence of the 
Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob." 

" The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them: 
and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as th*e rose." 

Milton thus describes the immediate effects of eating the for- 
bidden fruit. Terror produces the figure. 

Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 

In pangs, and nature gave a second groan ; 

Sky low'r'd, and, mutt'ring thunder, some sad drops 

Wept, at completing of the mortal sin. 
The impatience of Adam to know his origin, is supposed to 
prompt the personification of all the objects he beheld, in order 
to procure information. 

Thou sun, said I, fair light ! 

And thou enlighten'd earth, so fresh and gay ! 

Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 

And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 

Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? 
We shall give a remarkably fine example of this figure, from 
bishop Sherlock. He has beautifully personified Natural Reli- 
gion: and we may perceive, in the personification, the spirit and 
grace which the figure, when well conducted, bestows on dis- 
course. The author is comparing together our Saviour anu 
Mahomet. " Go (says he) to your Natural Religion : lay before her 
Mahomet, and his disciples, arrayed in armour and blood, riding 
in triumph over the spoils of thousands who fell by his victorious 

T 2 



222 APPENDIX. [Figures. 

sword. Show her the cities which he set in flames, the coun- 
tries which he ravaged and destroyed, and the miserable distress 
of all the inhabitants of the earth. When she has viewed him in 
this scene, carry her into his retirement ; show her the Prophet's 
chamber; his concubines and his wives; and let her hear him 
alledge revelation, and a Divine command, to justify his adultery 
and lust." 

" When she is tired with this prospect, then show her the 
blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing good to all the sons of 
men. Let her see him in his most retired privacies; let her 
follow him to the mount, and hear his devotions and supplica- 
tions to God. Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare ; and 
hear his heavenly discourse. Let her attend him to the tribunal, 
and consider the patience with which he endured the scoffs and 
reproaches of his enemies. Lead her to his cross ; let her view 
him in the agony of death, and hear his last prayer for his perse- 
cutors ; 4 Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.' 
—When Natural Religion has thus viewed both, ask her, which 
is the Prophet of God? — But her answer we have already had, 
when she saw part of this scene, through the eyes of the Centu- 
rion, who attended at the cross. By him she spoke, and said, 
* Truly this man was the Son of God.' " This is more than elegant ; 
it is truly sublime. The whole passage is animated ; and the 
Figure rises at the conclusion, when Natural Religion, who, be- 
fore, was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the 
Centurion's voice. 

This figure of speech is sometimes very improperly and ex- 
travagantly applied. A capital error in personifying objects, is, 
to deck them with fantastic and trifling'circumstances. A prac 
tice of this sort dissolves the potent charm, which enchants and 
deceives the reader ; and either leaves him dissatisfied, or ex- 
cites, perhaps, his risibility. 

Another error, frequent in descriptive personifications, con- 
sists in introducing them, when the subject of discussion is des- 
titute of dignity, and the reader is not prepared to relish them. 
One can scarcely peruse, with composure, the following use of 
this figure. Tt is the language of our elegant poet Thomson, 
who thus personifies and connects the bodily appetites, and their 
giatifications. 

Then sated Hunger bids his brother Thirst 

Produce the mighty bowl: 

Nor w r anting is the brown October, drawn 

Mature and perfect, from his dark retreat 

Of thirty years: and now his honest front 

Flames in the light refulgent. 
It is to be remarked, concerning this figure, and short meta- 
phors and similies, which also have been allowed to be the pro- 
per language of high passion, that they are the proper expression 
of it, only on those occasions when it is so far moderated as to 
admit of words. The first and highest transports seem to over 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 223 

whelm the mind, and are denoted by silence or groans next 
succeeds the violent and passionate language, of which these 
figures constitute a great part. Such agitation, however, can- 
not long continue ; the passions having spent their force, the 
mind soon subsides into that exhausted and dispirited state, in 
which all figures are improper. 

Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the sub- 
ject, to address some person or thing ; as, " Death is swallowed 
up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ? O grave ! where 
is thy victory ?" 

The following is an instance of personification and apostrophe 
united: "O tnou sword of the Lord! how long will it be ere 
thou be quiet? put thyself up into thy scabbard, rest and be stiil ! 
How can it be quiet, seeing the Lord hath given it a charge 
against Askelon, and against the sea-shore? there hath he ap- 
pointed it." See also an extraordinary example of these figures, 
in the 14th chapter of Isaiah, from the 4th to the 19th verse, 
where the prophet describes the fall of the Assyrian empire. 

A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to deck the 
object addressed with affected ornaments ; by which authors 
relinquish the expression of passion, and substitute for it the 
language of fancy. 

Another frequent error is, to extend this figure to too great 
length. The language of violent passion is always concise, and 
often abrupt. It passes suddenly from one object to another. 
It often glances at a thought, starts from it, and leaves it unfinish- 
ed. The succession of ideas is irregular, and connected by dis- 
tant and uncommon relations. On all these accounts, nothing is 
more unnatural than long speeches, uttered by persons under the 
influence of strong passions. Yet this error occurs in several 
poets of distinguished reputation. 

The next figure in order, is Antithesis. Comparison is founded 
on the resemblance ; antithesis, on the contrast or opposition of 
two objects. Contrast has always the effect, to make each of the 
contrasted objects appear in the stronger light. White, for in- 
stance, never appears so bright as when it is opposed to black ; 
and when both are viewed together. An author, in his defence 
of a friend against the charge of murder, expresses himself thus : 
44 Can you believe that the person whom he scrupled to slay, 
when he might have done so with full justice, in a convenient 
place, at a proper time, with secure impunity ; he made no scruple 
to murder against justice, in an unfavourable place, at an unsea- 
sonable time, and at the risk of capital condemnation?" 

The following examples further illustrate this figure. 
Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing full. 

u If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his 
Etores, but to diminish his desires." 

" If you regulate your desires according to the standard of na- 



224 APFftIN DIX^ [ Figures. 

ture, you will never be poor ; if according to the standard of 
opinion, you will never be rich." 

A maxim, or moral saying, very properly receives the form of 
the two last examples ; both because it is supposed to be the fruit 
of meditation, and because it is designed to be engraven on the 
memory, which recalls it more easily by the help of such con- 
trasted expressions. But where such sentences frequently suc- 
ceed each other ; where this becomes an author's favourite and 
prevailing manner of expressing himself, his style appears too 
much studied and laboured ; it gives us the impression of an au- 
thor attending more to his manner of saying things, than to the 
things themselves. 

The following is a beautiful example of Antithesis. " If Cato 
may be censured, severely indeed, but justly, for abandoning the 
cause of liberty, which he would not, however, survive ; what 
shall we say of those, who embrace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, 
grow tired of it when they have much to hope, and give it up 
when they have nothing to fear ?" — The capital antithesis of this 
sentence, is instituted between the zeal of Cato for liberty, and the 
indifference of some others of her patrons. Bui, besides the lead- 
ing antithesis, there are two suboidinate ones, in the latter mem- 
oer : " Grow tired of it, when they have much to hope : and give 
it up. when they have nothing to fear." 

The eloquent Burke has exhibited a fine instance of this figurej 
in his eulogium of the philanthropic Howard. 

" He has visited all Europe, — not to survey the sumptuousness 
of palaces, or the stateliness of temples ; not to make accurate 
measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a 
scale of the curiosity of modern arts ; nor to collect medals, or 
collate manuscripts: — but to dive into the depths of dungeons; 
to plunge into the infection of hospitals ; to survey the mansions 
of sorrow and pain ; to take the gage and dimensions of misery, 
depression, and contempt ; to remember the forgotten, to attend to 
the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and compare and collate the 
distresses of all men, in all countries." 

The next figure concerning which we are to treat is called Hy- 
verbole or Exaggeration. It consists in magnifying an object be- 
yond its natural bounds. In all languages, even in common 
conversation, hyperbolical expressions very frequently occur: as 
swift as the wind ; as white as the snow ; and the like ; and the 
common forms of compliment, are almost all of them extrava- 
gant hyperboles. If any thing be remarkably good or great in 
its kind, we are instantly ready to add to it some exaggerating 
epithet, and to make it the greatest or best we ever saw. The 
imagination has always a tendency to gratify itself, by magnify 
ing its present object, and carrying it to excess. More or Jess of 
ims hyperbolical turn will prevail in language, according to the 
liveliness of imagination among the people who speak it. Hencf 
young people deal much in hyperboles. Hence the language of 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 225 

the Orientals was far more hyperbolical, than that of the Europe- 
ans, who are of more phlegmatic, or perhaps we may say, of 
more correct imagination. Hence, among all writers in early 
times, anC in the rude periods of society, we may expect this 
figure &*. abound. Greater experience, and more cultivated so 
ciety, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten* the manner 
of expression. 

Hyperboles are of two kinds ; either such as are employed 
in description, or such as are suggested by the warmth of pas- 
sion. All passions without exception, love, terror, amazement, 
indignation, and even grief, throw the mind into confusion, ag- 
gravate their objects, and of course prompt a hyperbolical style. 
Hence the following sentiments of Satan in Milton, as strongly as 
they are described,contain nothing but whatis natural and proper; 
exhibiting the picture of a mind agitated with rage and despair 

Me, miserable ! which way shall I fly 

Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? 

Which way I fly is Hell, myself am Hell ; 

And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, 

Still threatening to devour me, opens wide, 

To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven. 
The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the size of 
their leader. u I saw their chief," says the scout of Ossian, "tab 
as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his shield, the rising 
moon : he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill." 

The errors frequent in the use of Hyperboles, arise either 
from overstraining, or introducing them on unsuitable occasions 
Dryden, in his poem on the restoration of king Charles the Second 
compliments that monarch, at the expense of the sun himself. 

That star at your birth shone out so bright, 

It stain'd the duller sun's meridian light. 
This is indeed mere bombast. It is difficult to ascertain, bj 
any precise rule, the proper measure and boundary of this figure 
Good sense and just taste must determine the point, beyond 
which, if we pass, we become extravagant. 

Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only m 
animated and warm composition. It is produced when, instead 
of relating something that is past, we use the present tense, and 
describe it as actually passing before our eyes. Thus Cicero, in 
his fourth oration against Catiline : "I seem to myself to behold 
this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all na 
tions, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me 
the slaughtered heaps of citizens, lying unburied in the midst of 
their ruined country. The furious countenance of Cethegus 
rises to my view, while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in 
your miseries." 

This manner of description supposes a sort of enthusiasm, 
which carries the person who describes, in some measure out of 
himself; and, when well executed, must needs, by the force of 
sympathy, impress the reader or hearer very strongly. But, in 



326 APPENDIX. [Figures. 

order to a successful execution, it requires an uncommonly 
warm imagination, and so happy a selection of circumstances, 
as shall make us think we see before our eyes the scene that is 
described. 

Interrogation. The unfigured, literal use of interrogation, is 
to ask a question : but when men are strongly moved, whatever 
they would affirm or deny, with great earnestness, they naturally 
put in the form of a question, expressing thereby the strongest 
confidence of the truth of their own sentiment, and appealing to 
their hearers for the impossibility of the contrary. Thus Balaam 
expressed himself to Balak. " The Lord is not a man that he 
should lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath 
he said it ? and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall 
he not make it good ?*' 

Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. We see this 
in the animated, introductory speech of Cicero against Catiline : 
" How long will you, Catiline, abuse our patience ? Do you not 
perceive that your designs are discovered ?" — He might indeed 
have said ; " You abuse our patience a long while. You must 
be sensible, that your designs are discovered." But it is easy to 
perceive, how much this latter mode of expression falls short of 
the forc° and vehemence of the former. 

Exclamation are the effect of strong emotions of the mind ; 
such is, surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. "Wo is 
me that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar !* 
Psalms. 

" O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain ot 
tears, that I might weep day and night, for the slain of the 
daughter of my people ! O that I had in the wilderness a lodging- 
place of wayfaring men I*' Jeremiah. 

Though interrogations may be introduced into close and earnest 
reasoning, exclamations belong only to strong emotions of the 
mind. When judiciously employed, they agitate the hearer or 
the reader with similar passions : but it is extremely improper, 
and sometimes ridiculous, to use them on trivial occasions, and 
on mean or low subjects. The unexperienced writer often 
attempts to elevate his language, by the copious display of this 
figure : but he rarely or never succeeds. He frequently renders 
his composition frigid to excess, or absolutely ludicrous, by calling 
on us to enter into his transports, when nothing is said or done 
to demand emotion. 

Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our 
thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force to gjj 
observations. Persons may be reproved for their negligence, by 
saying ; " You have taken great care indeed." Cicero says of the 
person against whom he was pleading; "We have great reason 
to believe that the modest man would not ask him for his debt, 
when he pursues his life." 

Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of figure ; which, 
after having set the inconveniences of a thing, in the ciearesl 



Figures. PERSPICl/ITY, &c. 227 

light, concludes with a feigned encouragement to pursue it. 
Such is that of Horace, when, having beautifully described the 
noise and tumults of Rome, he adds ironically ; 

" Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome." 

The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all kinds : and 
this mode of exposing them, is often more effectual than serious 
reasoning. The gravest persons have not declined the use of 
this figure, on proper occasions. The wise and virtuous Socrates 
made great use of it, in his endeavours to discountenance vicious 
and foolish practices. Even in the sacred writings, we have a 
remarkable instance of it. The prophet Elijah, when he chal- 
lenged the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity, 
4< mocked them, and said: Cry aloud for he is a god : either he 
is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure 
he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 

Exclamations and Irony are sometimes united : as in Cicero's 
oration for Balbus, where he derides his accuser, by saying ; "O 
excellent interpreter of the law ! master of antiquity! corrector 
and amender of our constitution !" 

The last figure of speech that we shall mention, is what writers 
call Amplification or Climax. It consists in heightening all the 
circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place 
in a strong light. Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, 
when he says ; " It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; 
it's the height of guilt to scourge him ; little less than parricide 
to put him to death : what name then shall I give to the act of 
crucifying him ?" 

Archbishop Tiliotson uses this figure very happily, to recom- 
mend good and virtuous actions : u After we have practised good 
actions awhile, they become easy ; and when they are easy, we 
begin to take pleasure in them ; and when they please us, we do 
them frequently ; and by frequency of acts, a thing grows into 
a habit ; and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature ; and so 
far as any thing is natural, so far it is necessary ; and we can 
hardly do otherwise ; nay, we do it many times when we do not 
think of it." 

We shall conclude this article with an example of a beautiful 
climax, taken from the charge of a judge to the jury, in the case 
of a woman accused of murdering her own child. " Gentlemen, 
if one man had any how slain another ; if an adversary had 
killed his opposer, or a woman occasioned the death of her 
enemy ; even these criminals would have been capitally punished 
by the Cornelian law : but if this guiltless infant, that could 
make no enemy, had been murdered by its own nurse, what 
punishment would not then the mother have demanded ? With 
what cries and exclamations would she have stunned your ears! 
What shall we say then, when a woman, guilty of homicide, a 
mother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath comprised all 
those misdeeds m one single crime ? a crime, in its own nature, 
detestable ; in a woman, prodigious ; in a mother, incredible | 






328 APPENDIX. [KS'mjw 

and perpetrated against one whose age called for compassion, 
whose near relation claimed affection, and whose innocence de- 
served the highest favour." 

We have now finished what was proposed, concerning Perspi 
cuity in single words and phrases, and the accurate construction 
of sentences. The former has heen considered under the heads 
of Purity, Propriety, and Precision ; and the latter, under those 
of Clearness, Unity, Strength, and the proper use of Figurative 
Language. Though many of those attentions which have been 
recommended, may appear minute, yet their effect upon writing 
and style, is much greater than might, at first, be imagined. A 
sentiment which is expressed in accurate language, and in a pe- 
riod, clearly, neatly, and well arranged, always makes a stronger 
impression on the mind, than one that is expressed inaccurately, 
or in a feeble or embarrassed manner. Every one feels this upon a 
comparison : and if the effect be sensible in one sentence, how 
much more in a whole discourse, or composition that is made up 
of such sentences ? 

The fundamental rule for writing with accuracy, and into 
which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to com- 
municate, in correct language, and in the clearest and most natural 
order, the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others. 
Such a selection and arrangement of words, as do most justice 
to the sense, and express it to most advantage, make an agree- 
able and strong impression. To these points have tended all the 
rules which have been given. Did we always think clearly, and 
were we, at the same time, fully masters of the language in 
which we write, there would be occasion for few rules. Our 
sentences would then, of course, acquire all those properties of 
clearness, unity, strength, and accuracy, which have been re- 
commended. For we may rest assured, that whenever we express 
ourselves ill, besides the mismanagement of language, there is, 
for the most part, some mistake in our manner of conceiving the 
subject. Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are gene- 
rally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and 
feeble thought. Thought and expression act and re-act upon 
each other. The understanding and language have a strict con- 
nexion ; and they who are learning to compose and arrange 
their sentences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the 
same time, to think with accuracy and order ; a consideration 
which alone will recompense the student, for his attention to this 
branch of literature. For a further explanation of the Figures oj 
Speech, see the Octavo Grammar, on this subject 



Wmmm V 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 






